Ubiquitin-specific protease TRE17/USP6 promotes tumor cell invasion through the regulation of glycoprotein CD147 intracellular trafficking.

Disordered expression and distribution of plasma membrane proteins at the cell surface leads to diverse malignant phenotypes in tumors, including cell invasion. The ubiquitin-specific protease TRE17/USP6, an oncogene identified in Ewing sarcoma, is highly expressed in several cancers and locally aggressive tumor-like lesions. We have previously demonstrated that TRE17 regulates the trafficking of plasma membrane proteins that enter cells via clathrin-independent endocytosis (CIE); TRE17 prevents CIE cargo proteins from being targeted to lysosomes for degradation by deubiquitylating them. However, functional insights into the effects of TRE17-mediated CIE cargo trafficking on cell invasion remain unknown. Here, we show that increased expression of TRE17 enhances invasiveness of the human sarcoma cell line HT-1080 by elevating the cell surface levels of the membrane glycoprotein CD147, which plays a central role in tumor progression. We demonstrate overexpression of TRE17 decreases ubiquitylated CD147, which is accompanied by suppression of CD147 transport to lysosomes, resulting in the stabilization and increase of cell surface-localized CD147. On the other hand, we show knockdown of TRE17 decreases cell surface CD147, which is coupled with reduced production of matrix metalloproteinases, the enzymes responsible for extracellular matrix degradation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that inhibition of CD147 by a specific inhibitor alleviated the TRE17-promoted tumor cell invasion. We therefore propose a model for the pathogenesis of TRE17-driven tumors in which TRE17 increases CD147 at the cell surface by preventing its lysosomal degradation, which in turn enhances matrix metalloproteinase synthesis and matrix degradation, thereby promoting tumor cell invasion.

Arf6 exacerbates allergic asthma through cell-to-cell transmission of ASC inflammasomes.

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways associated with excess production of Th2 cytokines and lung eosinophil accumulation. This inflammatory response persists in spite of steroid administration that blocks autocrine/paracrine loops of inflammatory cytokines, and the detailed mechanisms underlying asthma exacerbation remain unclear. Here, we show that asthma exacerbation is triggered by airway macrophages through a prion-like cell-to-cell transmission of extracellular particulates, including ASC protein, that assemble inflammasomes and mediate IL-1ß production. OVA-induced allergic asthma and associated IL-1ß production were alleviated in mice with small GTPase Arf6-deficient macrophages. The extracellular ASC specks were slightly engulfed by Arf6-/- macrophages, and the IL-1ß production was reduced in Arf6-/- macrophages compared with that in WT macrophages. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of the Arf6 guanine nucleotide exchange factor suppressed asthma-like allergic inflammation in OVA-challenged WT mice. Collectively, the Arf6-dependent intercellular transmission of extracellular ASC specks contributes to the amplification of allergic inflammation and subsequent asthma exacerbation.

Arf6 regulates energy metabolism in neutrophils.

The small GTPase Arf6 regulates many cellular processes, including cytoskeletal remodeling, receptor endocytosis, and pathogen phagocytosis. Arf6 silencing in neutrophil (PMN)-like cells is well-known to inhibit chemotactic peptide-mediated activation of phospholipase D, the oxidative burst, and ß2 integrin-dependent adhesion. In conditional knockout (cKO) mice, the migration to inflammatory sites of Arf6-deficient PMNs was diminished and associated with reduced cell surface expression of ß2 integrins. In this study we assessed the impact of Arf6 depletion on the functions and gene expression profile of PMNs isolated from the mouse air pouch. Numerous genes involved in response to oxygen levels, erythrocyte and myeloid differentiation, macrophage chemotaxis, response to chemicals, apoptosis, RNA destabilization, endosome organization, and vesicle transport were differentially expressed in PMNs cKO for Arf6. Lpar6 and Lacc-1 were the most up-regulated and down-regulated genes, respectively. The deletion of Arf6 also decreased Lacc-1 protein level in PMNs, and silencing of Arf6 in THP-1 monocytic cells delayed LPS-mediated Lacc-1 expression. We report that fMLP or zymosan-induced glycolysis and oxygen consumption rate were both decreased in air pouch PMNs but not in bone marrow PMNs of Arf6 cKO mice. Reduced oxygen consumption correlated with a decrease in superoxide and ROS production. Deletion of Arf6 in PMNs also reduced phagocytosis and interfered with apoptosis. The data suggest that Arf6 regulates energy metabolism, which may contribute to impaired phagocytosis, ROS production, and apoptosis in PMN-Arf6 cKO. This study provides new information on the functions and the inflammatory pathways influenced by Arf6 in PMNs.

Arf1 and Arf6 Synergistically Maintain Survival of T Cells during Activation.

ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) family consisting of six family members, Arf1-Arf6, belongs to Ras superfamily and orchestrates vesicle trafficking under the control of guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase-activating proteins. It is well established that brefeldin A, a potent inhibitor of ArfGEFs, blocks cytokine secretion from activated T cells, suggesting that the Arf pathway plays important roles in T cell functions. In this study, because Arf1 and Arf6 are the best-characterized members among Arf family, we established T lineage-specific Arf1-deficient, Arf6-deficient, and Arf1/6 double-deficient mice to understand physiological roles of the Arf pathway in the immune system. Contrary to our expectation, Arf deficiency had little or no impact on cytokine secretion from the activated T cells. In contrast, the lack of both Arf1 and Arf6, but neither Arf1 nor Arf6 deficiency alone, rendered naive T cells susceptible to apoptosis upon TCR stimulation because of imbalanced expression of Bcl-2 family members. We further demonstrate that Arf1/6 deficiency in T cells alleviates autoimmune diseases like colitis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, whereas Ab response under Th2-polarizing conditions is seemingly normal. Our findings reveal an unexpected role for the Arf pathway in the survival of T cells during TCR-induced activation and its potential as a therapeutic target in the autoimmune diseases.

TBC1D24 regulates recycling of clathrin-independent cargo proteins mediated by tubular recycling endosomes.

Many plasma membrane proteins enter cells by clathrin-independent endocytosis (CIE). Rab family small GTPases play pivotal roles in CIE and following intracellular trafficking of cargo proteins. Here, we provide evidence that TBC1D24, which contains an atypical Rab GAP domain, facilitates formation of tubular recycling endosomes (TREs) that are a hallmark of the CIE cargo trafficking pathway in HeLa cells. Overexpression of TBC1D24 in HeLa cells dramatically increased TREs loaded with CIE cargo proteins, while deletion of TBC1D24 impaired TRE formation and delayed the recycling of CIE cargo proteins back to the plasma membrane. We also found that TBC1D24 binds to Rab22A, through which TBC1D24 regulates TRE-mediated CIE cargo recycling. These findings provide insight into regulatory mechanisms for CIE cargo trafficking.

Assessment of Arf6 Deletion in PLB-985 Differentiated in Neutrophil-Like Cells and in Mouse Neutrophils: Impact on Adhesion and Migration.

Chemoattractant sensing, adhesiveness, and migration are critical events underlying the recruitment of neutrophils (PMNs) to sites of inflammation or infection. Defects in leukocyte adhesion or migration result in immunodeficiency disorders characterized by recurrent infections. In this study, we evaluated the role of Arf6 on PMN adhesion in vitro and on migration to inflammatory sites using PMN-Arf6 conditional knockout (cKO) mice. In PMN-like PLB-985 silenced for Arf6 fMLP-mediated adhesion to the ß2 integrin ligands, ICAM-1 and fibrinogen or the ß1/ß2 integrin ligand fibronectin was significantly reduced. Furthermore, overexpression of wild-type Arf6 promoted basal and fMLP-induced adhesion to immobilized integrin ligands, while overexpression of the dominant-negative Arf6 has the opposite effects. Using the Elane-Cre deleting mouse strains, we report that the level of Arf6 deletion in inflammatory PMNs isolated from the dorsal air pouches was stronger when compared to naïve cells isolated from the bone marrow. In PMN-Arf6 cKO mice, the recruitment of PMNs into the dorsal air pouch injected with LPS or the chemoattractant fMLP was significantly diminished. Impaired cell migration correlated with reduced cell surface expression of CD11a and CD11b in Arf6 cKO PMNs. Our results highlight that Arf6 regulates the activity and possibly the recycling of PMN integrins, and this compromises PMN migration to inflammatory sites.

A crucial role for Arf6 in the response of commissural axons to Slit.

A switch in the response of commissural axons to the repellent Slit is crucial for ensuring that they cross the ventral midline only once. However, the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. We have found that both endocytosis and recycling of Robo1 receptor are crucial for modulating Slit sensitivity in vertebrate commissural axons. Robo1 endocytosis and its recycling back to the cell surface maintained the stability of axonal Robo1 during Slit stimulation. We identified Arf6 guanosine triphosphatase and its activators, cytohesins, as previously unknown components in Slit-Robo1 signalling in vertebrate commissural neurons. Slit-Robo1 signalling activated Arf6. The Arf6-deficient mice exhibited marked defects in commissural axon midline crossing. Our data showed that a Robo1 endocytosis-triggered and Arf6-mediated positive-feedback strengthens the Slit response in commissural axons upon their midline crossing. Furthermore, the cytohesin-Arf6 pathways modulated this self-enhancement of the Slit response before and after midline crossing, resulting in a switch that reinforced robust regulation of axon midline crossing. Our study provides insights into endocytic trafficking-mediated mechanisms for spatiotemporally controlled axonal responses and uncovers new players in the midline switch in Slit responsiveness of commissural axons.

Explant Culture of the Embryonic Mouse Spinal Cord and Gene Transfer by ex vivo Electroporation.

Developing axons change responsiveness to guidance cues during the journey to synapse with target cells. Axon crossing at the ventral midline serves as a model for studying how axons accomplish such a switch in their response. Although primary neuron culture has been a versatile technique for elucidating various developmental mechanisms, many in vivo characteristics of neurons, such as long axon-extending abilities and axonal compartments, are not thoroughly preserved. In explant cultures, such properties of differentiated neurons and tissue architecture are maintained. To examine how the midline repellent Slit regulated the distribution of the Robo receptor in spinal cord commissural axons upon midline crossing and whether Robo trafficking machinery was a determinant of midline crossing, novel explant culture systems were developed. We have combined an "open-book" spinal cord explant method with that devised for flat-mount retinae. Here we present our protocol for explant culture of embryonic mouse spinal cords, which allows flexible manipulation of experimental conditions, immunostaining of extending axons and quantitative analysis of individual axons. In addition, we present a modified method that combines ex vivo electroporation and "closed-book" spinal cord explant culture. These culture systems provide new platforms for detailed analysis of axon guidance, by adapting gene knockdown, knockout and genome editing.

LPA1/3 signaling mediates tumor lymphangiogenesis through promoting CRT expression in prostate cancer.

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a bioactive lipid growth factor which is present in high levels in serum and platelets. LPA binds to its specific G-protein-coupled receptors, including LPA1 to LPA6, thereby regulating various physiological functions, including cancer growth, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis. Our previous study showed that LPA promotes the expression of the lymphangiogenic factor vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C in prostate cancer (PCa) cells. Interestingly, LPA has been shown to regulate the expression of calreticulin (CRT), a multifunctional chaperone protein, but the roles of CRT in PCa progression remain unclear. Here we investigated the involvement of CRT in LPA-mediated VEGF-C expression and lymphangiogenesis in PCa. Knockdown of CRT significantly reduced LPA-induced VEGF-C expression in PC-3 cells. Moreover, LPA promoted CRT expression through LPA receptors LPA1 and LPA3, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α). Tumor-xenografted mouse experiments further showed that CRT knockdown suppressed tumor growth and lymphangiogenesis. Notably, clinical evidence indicated that the LPA-producing enzyme autotaxin (ATX) is related to CRT and that CRT level is highly associated with lymphatic vessel density and VEGF-C expression. Interestingly, the pharmacological antagonist of LPA receptors significantly reduced the lymphatic vessel density in tumor and lymph node metastasis in tumor-bearing nude mice. Together, our results demonstrated that CRT is critical in PCa progression through the mediation of LPA-induced VEGF-C expression, implying that targeting the LPA signaling axis is a potential therapeutic strategy for PCa.

Physiological function of phospholipase D2 in anti-tumor immunity: regulation of CD8+ T lymphocyte proliferation.

Two major phospholipase D (PLD) isozymes in mammals, PLD1 and PLD2, hydrolyze the membrane phospholipid phosphatidylcholine to choline and the lipid messenger phosphatidic acid. Although their roles in cancer cells have been well studied, their functions in tumor microenvironment have not yet been clarified. Here, we demonstrate that PLD2 in cytotoxic CD8+ T cells plays a crucial role in anti-tumor immunity by regulating their cell proliferation. We found that growth of tumors formed by subcutaneously transplanted cancer cells is enhanced in Pld2-knockout mice. Interestingly, this phenotype was found to be at least in part attributable to the ablation of Pld2 from bone marrow cells. The number of CD8+ T cells, which induce cancer cell death, significantly decreased in the tumor produced in Pld2-knockout mice. In addition, CD3/CD28-stimulated proliferation of primary cultured splenic CD8+ T cells is markedly suppressed by Pld2 ablation. Finally, CD3/CD28-dependent activation of Erk1/2 and Ras is inhibited in Pld2-deleted CD8+ T cells. Collectively, these results indicate that PLD2 in CD8+ T cells plays a key role in their proliferation through activation of the Ras/Erk signaling pathway, thereby regulating anti-tumor immunity.

Phospholipase D2 promotes disease progression of renal cell carcinoma through the induction of angiogenin.

A hallmark of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is the presence of intracellular lipid droplets (LD) and it is assumed that phosphatidic acid (PA) produced by phospholipase D (PLD) plays some role in the LD formation. However, little is known about the significance of PLD in ccRCC. In this study, we examined the expression levels of PLD in ccRCC. The classical mammalian isoforms of PLD are PLD1 and PLD2, and the levels of both mRNA were higher at the primary tumor sites than in normal kidney tissues. Similarly, both PLD were significantly abundant in tumor cells as determined by analysis using immunohistochemical staining. Importantly, a higher level of PLD was significantly associated with a higher tumor stage and grade. Because PLD2 knockdown effectively suppressed the cell proliferation and invasion of ccRCC as compared with PLD1 in vitro, we examined the effect of PLD2 in vivo. Notably, shRNA-mediated knockdown of PLD2 suppressed the growth and invasion of tumors in nude mouse xenograft models. Moreover, the higher expression of PLD2 was significantly associated with poorer prognosis in 67 patients. As for genes relating to the tumor invasion of PLD2, we found that angiogenin (ANG) was positively regulated by PLD2. In fact, the expression levels of ANG were elevated in tumor tissues as compared with normal kidney and the inhibition of ANG activity with a neutralizing antibody significantly suppressed tumor invasion. Overall, we revealed for the first time that PLD2-produced PA promoted cell invasion through the expression of ANG in ccRCC cells.

Oxidized LDL phagocytosis during foam cell formation in atherosclerotic plaques relies on a PLD2-CD36 functional interdependence.

The uptake of cholesterol carried by low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is tightly controlled in the body. Macrophages are not well suited to counteract the cellular consequences of excess cholesterol leading to their transformation into "foam cells," an early step in vascular plaque formation. We have uncovered and characterized a novel mechanism involving phospholipase D (PLD) in foam cell formation. Utilizing bone marrow-derived macrophages from genetically PLD deficient mice, we demonstrate that PLD2 (but not PLD1)-null macrophages cannot fully phagocytose aggregated oxidized LDL (Agg-Ox-LDL), which was phenocopied with a PLD2-selective inhibitor. We also report a role for PLD2 in coupling Agg-oxLDL phagocytosis with WASP, Grb2, and Actin. Further, the clearance of LDL particles is mediated by both CD36 and PLD2, via mutual dependence on each other. In the absence of PLD2, CD36 does not engage in Agg-Ox-LDL removal and when CD36 is blocked, PLD2 cannot form protein-protein heterocomplexes with WASP or Actin. These results translated into humans using a GEO database of microarray expression data from atheroma plaques versus normal adjacent carotid tissue and observed higher values for NFkB, PLD2 (but not PLD1), WASP, and Grb2 in the atheroma plaques. Human atherectomy specimens confirmed high presence of PLD2 (mRNA and protein) as well as phospho-WASP in diseased arteries. Thus, PLD2 interacts in macrophages with Actin, Grb2, and WASP during phagocytosis of Agg-Ox-LDL in the presence of CD36 during their transformation into "foam cells." Thus, this study provides new molecular targets to counteract vascular plaque formation and atherogenesis.

ACAP3, the GTPase-activating protein specific to the small GTPase Arf6, regulates neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex.

The GTPase-activating protein (GAP) specific to the small GTPase Arf6, ACAP3, is known to regulate morphogenesis of neurons in vitro. However, physiological significance of ACAP3 in the brain development in vivo remains unclear. Here, we show that ACAP3 is involved in neuronal migration in the developing cerebral cortex of mice. Knockdown of ACAP3 in the developing cortical neurons of mice in utero significantly abrogated neuronal migration in the cortical layer, which was restored by ectopic expression of wild type of ACAP3, but not by its GAP-inactive mutant. Furthermore, morphological changes of neurons during migration in the cortical layer were impeded in ACAP3-knocked-down cortical neurons. These results provide evidence that ACAP3 plays a crucial role in migration of cortical neurons by regulating their morphological change during development of cerebral cortex.

Arf6 in lymphatic endothelial cells regulates lymphangiogenesis by controlling directional cell migration.

The small GTPase Arf6 plays pivotal roles in a wide variety of cellular events such as endocytosis, exocytosis, and actin cytoskeleton reorganization. However, the physiological functions of Arf6 at the whole animal level have not yet been thoroughly understood. Here, we show that Arf6 regulates developmental and tumor lymphangiogenesis in mice. Lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC)-specific Arf6 conditional knockout (LEC-Arf6 cKO) mouse embryos exhibit severe skin edema and impairment in the formation of lymphatic vessel network at the mid-gestation stage. Knockdown of Arf6 in human LECs inhibits in vitro capillary tube formation and directed cell migration induced by vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) by inhibiting VEGF-C-induced internalization of ß1 integrin. Finally, we found that LEC-Arf6 cKO mice transplanted with B16 melanoma cells attenuated tumor lymphangiogenesis and progression. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Arf6 in LECs plays a crucial role in physiological and pathological lymphangiogenesis.

Regulation of HGF-induced hepatocyte proliferation by the small GTPase Arf6 through the PIP2-producing enzyme PIP5K1A.

HGF and its receptor c-Met are critical molecules in various biological processes. Others and we have previously shown that the small GTPase Arf6 plays a pivotal role in HGF signaling in hepatocytes. However, the molecular mechanism of how Arf6 regulates HGF signaling is unclear. Here, we show that Arf6 plays an important role in HGF-stimulated hepatocyte proliferation and liver regeneration through the phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2)-producing enzyme PIP5K1A. We find that knockdown of Arf6 and PIP5K1A in HepG2 cells inhibits HGF-stimulated proliferation, Akt activation, and generation of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3) and its precursor PIP2. Interestingly, PIP5K1A is recruited to c-Met upon HGF stimulation in an Arf6 activity-dependent manner. Finally, we show that hepatocyte proliferation and liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy are suppressed in Pip5k1a knockout mice. These results provide insight into the molecular mechanism for HGF-stimulated hepatocyte proliferation and liver regeneration: Arf6 recruits PIP5K1A to c-Met and activates it upon HGF stimulation to produce PIP2 and subsequently PIP3, which in turn activates Akt to promote hepatocyte proliferation, thereby accelerating liver regeneration after liver injury.

The small G protein Arf6 expressed in keratinocytes by HGF stimulation is a regulator for skin wound healing.

The earlier step of cutaneous wound healing process, re-epithelialization of the wounded skin, is triggered by a variety of growth factors. However, molecular mechanisms through which growth factors trigger skin wound healing are less understood. Here, we demonstrate that hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/c-Met signaling-induced expression of the small G protein Arf6 mRNA in keratinocytes is essential for the skin wound healing. Arf6 mRNA expression was dramatically induced in keratinocytes at the wounded skin, which was specifically suppressed by the c-Met inhibitor. Wound healing of the skin was significantly delayed in keratinocyte-specific Arf6 conditional knockout mice. Furthermore, Arf6 deletion from keratinocytes remarkably suppressed HGF-stimulated cell migration and peripheral membrane ruffle formation, but did not affect skin morphology and proliferation/differentiation of keratinocytes. These results are consistent with the notion that Arf6 expressed in skin keratinocytes through the HGF/c-Met signaling pathway in response to skin wounding plays an important role in skin wound healing by regulating membrane dynamics-based motogenic cellular function of keratinocytes.

Rab32 subfamily small GTPases: pleiotropic Rabs in endosomal trafficking.

Rab small GTPases, well-known regulators of membrane trafficking pathways in eukaryotic cells, comprise approximately 60 different members in mammals. During the past decade, our understanding of the functions of mammalian Rab32 subfamily members (Rab32 and Rab38) have deepened, especially on the biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles, such as melanosomes, and the protection mechanisms against several pathogenic microbial infections. Endosome-mediated membrane trafficking by Rab32 subfamily members plays pivotal roles in these events. In this review, we provide an overview of the regulatory mechanisms of mammalian Rab32-family members in endosomal trafficking, especially focusing on their GEF, GAP and effector molecules, and describe the latest findings on physiological and pathological functions regulated by these molecules.

Machineries regulating the activity of the small GTPase Arf6 in cancer cells are potential targets for developing innovative anti-cancer drugs.

The Small GTPase ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6) functions as the molecular switch in cellular signaling pathways by cycling between GDP-bound inactive and GTP-bound active form, which is precisely regulated by two regulators, guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). Numerous studies have shown that these machineries play critical roles in tumor angiogenesis/growth and cancer cell invasion/metastasis through regulating the cycling of Arf6. Here, we summarize accumulating knowledge for involvement of Arf6 GEFs/GAPs and small molecule inhibitors of Arf6 signaling/cycling in cancer progression, and discuss possible strategies for developing innovative anti-cancer drugs targeting Arf6 signaling/cycling.

ACAP3 regulates neurite outgrowth through its GAP activity specific to Arf6 in mouse hippocampal neurons.

ACAP3 (ArfGAP with coiled-coil, ankyrin repeat and pleckstrin homology domains 3) belongs to the ACAP family of GAPs (GTPase-activating proteins) for the small GTPase Arf (ADP-ribosylation factor). However, its specificity to Arf isoforms and physiological functions remain unclear. In the present study, we demonstrate that ACAP3 plays an important role in neurite outgrowth of mouse hippocampal neurons through its GAP activity specific to Arf6. In primary cultured mouse hippocampal neurons, knockdown of ACAP3 abrogated neurite outgrowth, which was rescued by ectopically expressed wild-type ACAP3, but not by its GAP activity-deficient mutant. Ectopically expressed ACAP3 in HEK (human embryonic kidney)-293T cells showed the GAP activity specific to Arf6. In support of this observation, the level of GTP-bound Arf6 was significantly increased by knockdown of ACAP3 in hippocampal neurons. In addition, knockdown and knockout of Arf6 in mouse hippocampal neurons suppressed neurite outgrowth. These results demonstrate that ACAP3 positively regulates neurite outgrowth through its GAP activity specific to Arf6. Furthermore, neurite outgrowth suppressed by ACAP3 knockdown was rescued by expression of a fast cycle mutant of Arf6 that spontaneously exchanges guanine nucleotides on Arf6, but not by that of wild-type, GTP- or GDP-locked mutant Arf6. Thus cycling between active and inactive forms of Arf6, which is precisely regulated by ACAP3 in concert with a guanine-nucleotide-exchange factor(s), seems to be required for neurite outgrowth of hippocampal neurons.