Increased post-mitotic senescence in aged human neurons is a pathological feature of Alzheimer's disease.

The concept of senescence as a phenomenon limited to proliferating cells has been challenged by growing evidence of senescence-like features in terminally differentiated cells, including neurons. The persistence of senescent cells late in life is associated with tissue dysfunction and increased risk of age-related disease. We found that Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains have significantly higher proportions of neurons that express senescence markers, and their distribution indicates bystander effects. AD patient-derived directly induced neurons (iNs) exhibit strong transcriptomic, epigenetic, and molecular biomarker signatures, indicating a specific human neuronal senescence-like state. AD iN single-cell transcriptomics revealed that senescent-like neurons face oncogenic challenges and metabolic dysfunction as well as display a pro-inflammatory signature. Integrative profiling of the inflammatory secretome of AD iNs and patient cerebral spinal fluid revealed a neuronal senescence-associated secretory phenotype that could trigger astrogliosis in human astrocytes. Finally, we show that targeting senescence-like neurons with senotherapeutics could be a strategy for preventing or treating AD.

Direct Conversion of Human Fibroblasts to Induced Neurons.

Progressive aging is a physiological process that represents a central risk factor for the development of several human age-associated chronic diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases. A major focus in biomedical research is the pursuit for appropriate model systems to better model the biology of human aging and the interface between aging and disease mechanisms. Direct conversion of human fibroblasts into induced neurons (iNs) has emerged as a novel technology for the in vitro modeling of age-dependent neurological diseases. Similar to other cellular reprogramming techniques, e.g., iPSC-based cellular reprograming, direct conversion relies on the ectopic overexpression of transcription factors, typically including well-known pioneer factors. However, in contrast to alternative technologies to generate neurons, the entire process of direct conversion bypasses any proliferative or stem cell-like stage, which in fact renders it the unique aptitude of preserving age-associated hallmarks from the initial fibroblast source. In this chapter, we introduce direct conversion as a practical and easy-to-approach disease model for aging and neurodegenerative disease research. A focus here is to provide a stepwise protocol for the efficient and highly reproducible generation of iNs from adult dermal fibroblasts from human donors.

Age-dependent instability of mature neuronal fate in induced neurons from Alzheimer's patients.

Sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) exclusively affects elderly people. Using direct conversion of AD patient fibroblasts into induced neurons (iNs), we generated an age-equivalent neuronal model. AD patient-derived iNs exhibit strong neuronal transcriptome signatures characterized by downregulation of mature neuronal properties and upregulation of immature and progenitor-like signaling pathways. Mapping iNs to longitudinal neuronal differentiation trajectory data demonstrated that AD iNs reflect a hypo-mature neuronal identity characterized by markers of stress, cell cycle, and de-differentiation. Epigenetic landscape profiling revealed an underlying aberrant neuronal state that shares similarities with malignant transformation and age-dependent epigenetic erosion. To probe for the involvement of aging, we generated rejuvenated iPSC-derived neurons that showed no significant disease-related transcriptome signatures, a feature that is consistent with epigenetic clock and brain ontogenesis mapping, which indicate that fibroblast-derived iNs more closely reflect old adult brain stages. Our findings identify AD-related neuronal changes as age-dependent cellular programs that impair neuronal identity.

One Big Step to a Neuron, Two Small Steps for miRNAs.

Direct cell fate conversion of human somatic cells into induced neurons (iNs) is often regarded as a highly concerted one-step process. In this issue of Cell Stem Cell, Cates et al. (2021) dissect the iN conversion trajectory into two largely independent steps and identify key players at each stage.