The dynamin-related protein Dyn2 is essential for both apicoplast and mitochondrial fission in Plasmodium falciparum.

Dynamins, or dynamin-related proteins (DRPs), are large mechano-sensitive GTPases mediating membrane dynamics or organellar fission/fusion events. Plasmodium falciparum encodes three dynamin-like proteins whose functions are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that PfDyn2 mediates both apicoplast and mitochondrial fission. Using super-resolution and ultrastructure expansion microscopy, we show that PfDyn2 is expressed in the schizont stage and localizes to both the apicoplast and mitochondria. Super-resolution long-term live cell microscopy shows that PfDyn2-deficient parasites cannot complete cytokinesis because the apicoplast and mitochondria do not undergo fission. Further, the basal complex or cytokinetic ring in Plasmodium cannot fully contract upon PfDyn2 depletion, a phenotype secondary to physical blockage of undivided organelles in the middle of the ring. Our data suggest that organellar fission defects result in aberrant schizogony, generating unsuccessful merozoites. The unique biology of PfDyn2, mediating both apicoplast and mitochondrial fission, has not been observed in other organisms possessing two endosymbiotic organelles. Highlights: PfDyn2 is essential for schizont-stage development.PfDyn2 mediates both apicoplast and mitochondrial fission.Deficiency of PfDyn2 leads to organellar fission failures and blockage of basal complex contraction.Addition of apicoplast-derived metabolite IPP does not rescue the growth defects.

Plasmodium falciparum utilizes pyrophosphate to fuel an essential proton pump in the ring stage and the transition to trophozoite stage.

During asexual growth and replication cycles inside red blood cells, the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum primarily relies on glycolysis for energy supply, as its single mitochondrion performs little or no oxidative phosphorylation. Post merozoite invasion of a host red blood cell, the ring stage lasts approximately 20 hours and was traditionally thought to be metabolically quiescent. However, recent studies have shown that the ring stage is active in several energy-costly processes, including gene transcription, protein translation, protein export, and movement inside the host cell. It has remained unclear whether a low glycolytic flux alone can meet the energy demand of the ring stage over a long period post invasion. Here, we demonstrate that the metabolic by-product pyrophosphate (PPi) is a critical energy source for the development of the ring stage and its transition to the trophozoite stage. During early phases of the asexual development, the parasite utilizes Plasmodium falciparum vacuolar pyrophosphatase 1 (PfVP1), an ancient pyrophosphate-driven proton pump, to export protons across the parasite plasma membrane. Conditional deletion of PfVP1 leads to a delayed ring stage that lasts nearly 48 hours and a complete blockage of the ring-to-trophozoite transition before the onset of parasite death. This developmental arrest can be partially rescued by an orthologous vacuolar pyrophosphatase from Arabidopsis thaliana, but not by the soluble pyrophosphatase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which lacks proton pumping activities. Since proton-pumping pyrophosphatases have been evolutionarily lost in human hosts, the essentiality of PfVP1 suggests its potential as an antimalarial drug target. A drug target of the ring stage is highly desired, as current antimalarials have limited efficacy against this stage.

Transcriptional changes in Plasmodium falciparum upon conditional knock down of mitochondrial ribosomal proteins RSM22 and L23.

The mitochondrion of malaria parasites is an attractive antimalarial drug target, which require mitoribosomes to translate genes encoded in the mitochondrial (mt) DNA. Plasmodium mitoribosomes are composed of highly fragmented ribosomal RNA (rRNA) encoded in the mtDNA. All mitoribosomal proteins (MRPs) and other assembly factors are encoded in the nuclear genome. Here, we have studied one putative assembly factor, RSM22 (Pf3D7_1027200) and one large subunit (LSU) MRP, L23 (Pf3D7_1239100) in Plasmodium falciparum. We show that both proteins localize to the mitochondrion. Conditional knock down (KD) of PfRSM22 or PfMRPL23 leads to reduced cytochrome bc1 complex activity and increased sensitivity to bc1 inhibitors such as atovaquone and ELQ-300. Using RNA sequencing as a tool, we reveal the transcriptomic changes of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes upon KD of these two proteins. In the early phase of KD, while most mt rRNAs and transcripts of putative MRPs were downregulated in the absence of PfRSM22, many mt rRNAs and several MRPs were upregulated after KD of PfMRPL23. The contrast effects in the early phase of KD likely suggests non-redundant roles of PfRSM22 and PfMRPL23 in the assembly of P. falciparum mitoribosomes. At the late time points of KD, loss of PfRSM22 and PfMRPL23 caused defects in many essential metabolic pathways and transcripts related to essential mitochondrial functions, leading to parasite death. In addition, we enlist mitochondrial proteins of unknown function that are likely novel Plasmodium MRPs based on their structural similarity to known MRPs as well as their expression profiles in KD parasites.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of multiple targeting antimalarials.

Malaria still threatens global health seriously today. While the current discoveries of antimalarials are almost totally focused on single mode-of-action inhibitors, multi-targeting inhibitors are highly desired to overcome the increasingly serious drug resistance. Here, we performed a structure-based drug design on mitochondrial respiratory chain of Plasmodium falciparum and identified an extremely potent molecule, RYL-581, which binds to multiple protein binding sites of P. falciparum simultaneously (allosteric site of type II NADH dehydrogenase, Qo and Qi sites of cytochrome bc 1). Antimalarials with such multiple targeting mechanism of action have never been reported before. RYL-581 kills various drug-resistant strains in vitro and shows good solubility as well as in vivo activity. This structure-based strategy for designing RYL-581 from starting compound may be helpful for other medicinal chemistry projects in the future, especially for drug discovery on membrane-associated targets.

Dispensable Role of Mitochondrial Fission Protein 1 (Fis1) in the Erythrocytic Development of Plasmodium falciparum.

Malaria remains a huge global health burden, and control of this disease has run into a severe bottleneck. To defeat malaria and reach the goal of eradication, a deep understanding of the parasite biology is urgently needed. The mitochondrion of the malaria parasite is essential throughout the parasite's life cycle and has been validated as a clinical drug target. In the asexual development of Plasmodium spp., the single mitochondrion grows from a small tubular structure to a complex branched network. This branched mitochondrion is divided at the end of schizogony when 8 to 32 daughter cells are produced, distributing one mitochondrion to each forming merozoite. In mosquito and liver stages, the giant mitochondrial network is split into thousands of pieces and daughter mitochondria are segregated into individual progeny. Despite the significance of mitochondrial fission in Plasmodium, the underlying mechanism is largely unknown. Studies of mitochondrial fission in model eukaryotes have revealed that several mitochondrial fission adaptor proteins are involved in recruiting dynamin GTPases to physically split mitochondrial membranes. Apicomplexan parasites, however, share no identifiable homologs of mitochondrial fission adaptor proteins with yeast or humans, except for Fis1. Here, we investigated the localization and essentiality of the Fis1 homolog in Plasmodium falciparum, PfFis1 (PF3D7_1325600), during the asexual life cycle. We found that PfFis1 requires an intact C terminus for mitochondrial localization but is not essential for parasite development or mitochondrial fission. The dispensable role of PfFis1 indicates that Plasmodium contains additional fission adaptor proteins on the mitochondrial outer membrane that could be essential for mitochondrial fission.IMPORTANCE Malaria is responsible for over 230 million clinical cases and ∼half a million deaths each year. The single mitochondrion of the malaria parasite functions as a metabolic hub throughout the parasite's developmental cycle (DC) and also as a source of ATP in certain stages. To pass on its essential functions, the parasite's mitochondrion needs to be properly divided and segregated into all progeny during cell division via a process termed mitochondrial fission. Due to the divergent nature of Plasmodium spp., the molecular players involved in mitochondrial fission and their mechanisms of action remain largely unknown. Here, we found that the only identifiable mitochondrial fission adaptor protein that is evolutionarily conserved in the Apicomplexan phylum, Fis1, it not essential in P. falciparum asexual stages. Our data suggest that malaria parasites use redundant fission adaptor proteins on the mitochondrial outer membrane to mediate the fission process.

Genetic ablation of the mitoribosome in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum sensitizes it to antimalarials that target mitochondrial functions.

The mitochondrion of malaria parasites contains several clinically validated drug targets. Within Plasmodium spp., the causative agents of malaria, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is only 6 kb long, being the smallest mitochondrial genome among all eukaryotes. The mtDNA encodes only three proteins of the mitochondrial electron transport chain and ∼27 small, fragmented rRNA genes having lengths of 22-195 nucleotides. The rRNA fragments are thought to form a mitochondrial ribosome (mitoribosome), together with ribosomal proteins imported from the cytosol. The mitoribosome of Plasmodium falciparum is essential for maintenance of the mitochondrial membrane potential and parasite viability. However, the role of the mitoribosome in sustaining the metabolic status of the parasite mitochondrion remains unclear. The small ribosomal subunit in P. falciparum has 14 annotated mitoribosomal proteins, and employing a CRISPR/Cas9-based conditional knockdown tool, here we verified the location and tested the essentiality of three candidates (PfmtRPS12, PfmtRPS17, and PfmtRPS18). Using immuno-EM, we provide evidence that the P. falciparum mitoribosome is closely associated with the mitochondrial inner membrane. Upon knockdown of the mitoribosome, parasites became hypersensitive to inhibitors targeting mitochondrial Complex III (bc1), dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHOD), and the F1F0-ATP synthase complex. Furthermore, the mitoribosome knockdown blocked the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway and reduced the cellular pool of pyrimidine nucleotides. These results suggest that disruption of the P. falciparum mitoribosome compromises the metabolic capacity of the mitochondrion, rendering the parasite hypersensitive to a panel of inhibitors that target mitochondrial functions.

Divergent Mitochondrial Ribosomes in Unicellular Parasitic Protozoans.

The mitochondrion in parasitic protozoans is a clinically proven drug target. A specialized ribosome (mitoribosome) is required to translate genes encoded on the mitochondrial (mt) DNA. Despite the significance, little is known about mitoribosomes in many medically and economically important unicellular protozoans.

Mitochondrial type II NADH dehydrogenase of Plasmodium falciparum (PfNDH2) is dispensable in the asexual blood stages.

The battle against malaria has been substantially impeded by the recurrence of drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest human malaria parasite. To counter the problem, novel antimalarial drugs are urgently needed, especially those that target unique pathways of the parasite, since they are less likely to have side effects. The mitochondrial type II NADH dehydrogenase (NDH2) of P. falciparum, PfNDH2 (PF3D7_0915000), has been considered a good prospective antimalarial drug target for over a decade, since malaria parasites lack the conventional multi-subunit NADH dehydrogenase, or Complex I, present in the mammalian mitochondrial electron transport chain (mtETC). Instead, Plasmodium parasites contain a single subunit NDH2, which lacks proton pumping activity and is absent in humans. A significant amount of effort has been expended to develop PfNDH2 specific inhibitors, yet the essentiality of PfNDH2 has not been convincingly verified. Herein, we knocked out PfNDH2 in P. falciparum via a CRISPR/Cas9 mediated approach. Deletion of PfNDH2 does not alter the parasite's susceptibility to multiple mtETC inhibitors, including atovaquone and ELQ-300. We also show that the antimalarial activity of the fungal NDH2 inhibitor HDQ and its new derivative CK-2-68 is due to inhibition of the parasite cytochrome bc1 complex rather than PfNDH2. These compounds directly inhibit the ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase activity of the malarial bc1 complex. Our results suggest that PfNDH2 is not likely a good antimalarial drug target.

para-Aminobenzoate Synthesis versus Salvage in Malaria Parasites.

Enzymes of the folate de novo synthesis pathway in malaria parasites are proven antimalarial drug targets. A key precursor for folate synthesis is para-aminobenzoate (pABA). In a recent study [1] (Cell Rep. 2019;26:356-363 e4), the contributions of pABA synthesis versus salvage were re-evaluated in a rodent malaria model with knockout parasites grown in mice fed with various diets. The results imply that malaria parasites can either synthesize or salvage pABA to meet the demand for folates.

Novel Defense Peptides from Platelets Kill Malaria Parasites.

PF4 (platelet factor 4) is the first host defense peptide identified from platelets that kills malaria parasites. In a recent study, a cyclic PF4 derivative, cPF4PD, is developed, which inherits the antiparasitic effect of PF4 but excludes its potential side effects. cPF4PD is a promising novel antimalarial agent of human origin.

The mitochondrial ribosomal protein L13 is critical for the structural and functional integrity of the mitochondrion in Plasmodium falciparum.

The phylum Apicomplexa contains a group of protozoa causing diseases in humans and livestock. Plasmodium spp., the causative agent of malaria, contains a mitochondrion that is very divergent from that of their hosts. The malarial mitochondrion is a clinically validated target for the antimalarial drug atovaquone, which specifically blocks the electron transfer activity of the bc1 complex of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mtETC). Most mtETC proteins are nuclear-encoded and imported from the cytosol, but three key protein subunits are encoded in the Plasmodium mitochondrial genome: cyt b, COXI, and COXIII. They are translated inside the mitochondrion by mitochondrial ribosomes (mitoribosomes). Here, we characterize the function of one large mitoribosomal protein in Plasmodium falciparum, PfmRPL13. We found that PfmRPL13 localizes to the parasite mitochondrion and is refractory to genetic knockout. Ablation of PfmRPL13 using a conditional knockdown system (TetR-DOZI-aptamer) caused a series of adverse events in the parasite, including mtETC deficiency, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), and death. The PfmRPL13 knockdown parasite also became hypersensitive to proguanil, a drug proposed to target an alternative process for maintaining Δψm Surprisingly, transmission EM revealed that PfmRPL13 disruption also resulted in an unusually elongated and branched mitochondrion. The growth arrest of the knockdown parasite could be rescued with a second copy of PfmRPL13, but not by supplementation with decylubiquinone or addition of a yeast dihydroorotate dehydrogenase gene. In summary, we provide first and direct evidence that mitoribosomes are essential for malaria parasites to maintain the structural and functional integrity of the mitochondrion.

Caged Garcinia Xanthones, a Novel Chemical Scaffold with Potent Antimalarial Activity.

Caged Garcinia xanthones (CGXs) constitute a family of natural products that are produced by tropical/subtropical trees of the genus Garcinia CGXs have a unique chemical architecture, defined by the presence of a caged scaffold at the C ring of a xanthone moiety, and exhibit a broad range of biological activities. Here we show that synthetic CGXs exhibit antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum, the causative parasite of human malaria, at the intraerythrocytic stages. Their activity can be substantially improved by attaching a triphenylphosphonium group at the A ring of the caged xanthone. Specifically, CR135 and CR142 were found to be highly effective antimalarial inhibitors, with 50% effective concentrations as low as ∼10 nM. CGXs affect malaria parasites at multiple intraerythrocytic stages, with mature stages (trophozoites and schizonts) being more vulnerable than immature rings. Within hours of CGX treatment, malaria parasites display distinct morphological changes, significant reduction of parasitemia (the percentage of infected red blood cells), and aberrant mitochondrial fragmentation. CGXs do not, however, target the mitochondrial electron transport chain, the target of the drug atovaquone and several preclinical candidates. CGXs are cytotoxic to human HEK293 cells at the low micromolar level, which results in a therapeutic window of around 150-fold for the lead compounds. In summary, we show that CGXs are potent antimalarial compounds with structures distinct from those of previously reported antimalarial inhibitors. Our results highlight the potential to further develop Garcinia natural product derivatives as novel antimalarial agents.

Genetic investigation of tricarboxylic acid metabolism during the Plasmodium falciparum life cycle.

New antimalarial drugs are urgently needed to control drug-resistant forms of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Mitochondrial electron transport is the target of both existing and new antimalarials. Herein, we describe 11 genetic knockout (KO) lines that delete six of the eight mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzymes. Although all TCA KOs grew normally in asexual blood stages, these metabolic deficiencies halted life-cycle progression in later stages. Specifically, aconitase KO parasites arrested as late gametocytes, whereas α-ketoglutarate-dehydrogenase-deficient parasites failed to develop oocysts in the mosquitoes. Mass spectrometry analysis of (13)C-isotope-labeled TCA mutant parasites showed that P. falciparum has significant flexibility in TCA metabolism. This flexibility manifested itself through changes in pathway fluxes and through altered exchange of substrates between cytosolic and mitochondrial pools. Our findings suggest that mitochondrial metabolic plasticity is essential for parasite development.

The heme biosynthesis pathway is essential for Plasmodium falciparum development in mosquito stage but not in blood stages.

Heme is an essential cofactor for aerobic organisms. Its redox chemistry is central to a variety of biological functions mediated by hemoproteins. In blood stages, malaria parasites consume most of the hemoglobin inside the infected erythrocytes, forming nontoxic hemozoin crystals from large quantities of heme released during digestion. At the same time, the parasites possess a heme de novo biosynthetic pathway. This pathway in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has been considered essential and is proposed as a potential drug target. However, we successfully disrupted the first and last genes of the pathway, individually and in combination. These knock-out parasite lines, lacking 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase and/or ferrochelatase (FC), grew normally in blood-stage culture and exhibited no changes in sensitivity to heme-related antimalarial drugs. We developed a sensitive LC-MS/MS assay to monitor stable isotope incorporation into heme from its precursor 5-[(13)C4]aminolevulinic acid, and this assay confirmed that de novo heme synthesis was ablated in FC knock-out parasites. Disrupting the FC gene also caused no defects in gametocyte generation or maturation but resulted in a greater than 70% reduction in male gamete formation and completely prevented oocyst formation in female Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. Our data demonstrate that the heme biosynthesis pathway is not essential for asexual blood-stage growth of P. falciparum parasites but is required for mosquito transmission. Drug inhibition of pathway activity is therefore unlikely to provide successful antimalarial therapy. These data also suggest the existence of a parasite mechanism for scavenging host heme to meet metabolic needs.

The antimalarial activities of methylene blue and the 1,4-naphthoquinone 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-menadione are not due to inhibition of the mitochondrial electron transport chain.

Methylene blue and a series of recently developed 1,4-naphthoquinones, including 3-[4-(substituted)benzyl]-menadiones, are potent antimalarial agents in vitro and in vivo. The activity of these structurally diverse compounds against the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum might involve their peculiar redox properties. According to the current theory, redox-active methylene blue and 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-menadione are "subversive substrates." These agents are thought to shuttle electrons from reduced flavoproteins to acceptors such as hemoglobin-associated or free Fe(III)-protoporphyrin IX. The reduction of Fe(III)-protoporphyrin IX could subsequently prevent essential hemoglobin digestion and heme detoxification in the parasite. Alternatively, owing to their structures and redox properties, methylene blue and 1,4-naphthoquinones might also affect the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Here, we tested the latter hypothesis using an established system of transgenic P. falciparum cell lines and the antimalarial agents atovaquone and chloroquine as controls. In contrast to atovaquone, methylene blue and 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-menadione do not inhibit the mitochondrial electron transport chain. A systematic comparison of the morphologies of drug-treated parasites furthermore suggests that the three drugs do not share a mechanism of action. Our findings support the idea that methylene blue and 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-menadione exert their antimalarial activity as redox-active subversive substrates.

Mitochondrial RNA polymerase is an essential enzyme in erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum.

We have shown that transgenic Plasmodium falciparum parasites expressing the yeast DHODH (dihydroorotate dehydrogenase) are independent of the mtETC (mitochondrial electron transport chain), suggesting that they might not need the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA), since it only encodes three protein subunits belonging to the mtETC and fragmentary ribosomal RNA molecules. Disrupting the mitochondrial RNA polymerase (mtRNAP), which is critical for mtDNA replication and transcription, might then cause the generation of a ρ(0) parasite line lacking mtDNA. We made multiple attempts to disrupt the mtRNAP gene by double crossover recombination methods in parasite lines expressing yDHODH either episomally or integrated in the genome, but were unable to produce the desired knockout. We verified that the mtRNAP gene was accessible to recombination by successfully integrating a triple HA tag at the 3' end via single cross-over recombination. These studies suggest that mtRNAP is essential even in mtETC-independent P. falciparum parasites.

ATP synthase complex of Plasmodium falciparum: dimeric assembly in mitochondrial membranes and resistance to genetic disruption.

The rotary nanomotor ATP synthase is a central player in the bioenergetics of most organisms. Yet the role of ATP synthase in malaria parasites has remained unclear, as blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum appear to derive ATP largely through glycolysis. Also, genes for essential subunits of the F(O) sector of the complex could not be detected in the parasite genomes. Here, we have used molecular genetic and immunological tools to investigate the localization, complex formation, and functional significance of predicted ATP synthase subunits in P. falciparum. We generated transgenic P. falciparum lines expressing seven epitope-tagged canonical ATP synthase subunits, revealing localization of all but one of the subunits to the mitochondrion. Blue native gel electrophoresis of P. falciparum mitochondrial membranes suggested the molecular mass of the ATP synthase complex to be greater than 1 million daltons. This size is consistent with the complex being assembled as a dimer in a manner similar to the complexes observed in other eukaryotic organisms. This observation also suggests the presence of previously unknown subunits in addition to the canonical subunits in P. falciparum ATP synthase complex. Our attempts to disrupt genes encoding ß and γ subunits were unsuccessful, suggesting an essential role played by the ATP synthase complex in blood stages of P. falciparum. These studies suggest that, despite some unconventional features and its minimal contribution to ATP synthesis, P. falciparum ATP synthase is localized to the parasite mitochondrion, assembled as a large dimeric complex, and is likely essential for parasite survival.

A chemical genomic analysis of decoquinate, a Plasmodium falciparum cytochrome b inhibitor.

Decoquinate has single-digit nanomolar activity against in vitro blood stage Plasmodium falciparum parasites, the causative agent of human malaria. In vitro evolution of decoquinate-resistant parasites and subsequent comparative genomic analysis to the drug-sensitive parental strain revealed resistance was conferred by two nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms in the gene encoding cytochrome b. The resultant amino acid mutations, A122T and Y126C, reside within helix C in the ubiquinol-binding pocket of cytochrome b, an essential subunit of the cytochrome bc(1) complex. As with other cytochrome bc(1) inhibitors, such as atovaquone, decoquinate has low nanomolar activity against in vitro liver stage P. yoelii and provides partial prophylaxis protection when administered to infected mice at 50 mg kg(-1). In addition, transgenic parasites expressing yeast dihydroorotate dehydrogenase are >200-fold less sensitive to decoquinate, which provides additional evidence that this drug inhibits the parasite's mitochondrial electron transport chain. Importantly, decoquinate exhibits limited cross-resistance to a panel of atovaquone-resistant parasites evolved to harbor various mutations in cytochrome b. The basis for this difference was revealed by molecular docking studies, in which both of these inhibitors were shown to have distinctly different modes of binding within the ubiquinol-binding site of cytochrome b.

Variation among Plasmodium falciparum strains in their reliance on mitochondrial electron transport chain function.

Previous studies demonstrated that Plasmodium falciparum strain D10 became highly resistant to the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mtETC) inhibitor atovaquone when the mtETC was decoupled from the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway by expressing the fumarate-dependent (ubiquinone-independent) yeast dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (yDHODH) in parasites. To investigate the requirement for decoupled mtETC activity in P. falciparum with different genetic backgrounds, we integrated a single copy of the yDHODH gene into the genomes of D10attB, 3D7attB, Dd2attB, and HB3attB strains of the parasite. The yDHODH gene was equally expressed in all of the transgenic lines. All four yDHODH transgenic lines showed strong resistance to atovaquone in standard short-term growth inhibition assays. During longer term growth with atovaquone, D10attB-yDHODH and 3D7attB-yDHODH parasites remained fully resistant, but Dd2attB-yDHODH and HB3attB-yDHODH parasites lost their tolerance to the drug after 3 to 4 days of exposure. No differences were found, however, in growth responses among all of these strains to the Plasmodium-specific DHODH inhibitor DSM1 in either short- or long-term exposures. Thus, DSM1 works well as a selective agent in all parasite lines transfected with the yDHODH gene, whereas atovaquone works for some lines. We found that the ubiquinone analog decylubiquinone substantially reversed the atovaquone inhibition of Dd2attB-yDHODH and HB3attB-yDHODH transgenic parasites during extended growth. Thus, we conclude that there are strain-specific differences in the requirement for mtETC activity among P. falciparum strains, suggesting that, in erythrocytic stages of the parasite, ubiquinone-dependent dehydrogenase activities other than those of DHODH are dispensable in some strains but are essential in others.

Yeast dihydroorotate dehydrogenase as a new selectable marker for Plasmodium falciparum transfection.

Genetic manipulation of Plasmodium falciparum in culture through transfection has provided numerous insights into the molecular and cell biology of this parasite. The procedure is rather cumbersome, and is limited by the number of drug-resistant markers that can be used for selecting transfected parasites. Here we report a new selectable marker that could allow multiple transfections. We have taken advantage of our finding that a critical function of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mtETC) in the erythrocytic stages of P. falciparum is the regeneration of ubiquinone as co-substrate of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH), and that transgenic P. falciparum expressing ubiquinone-independent DHODH from yeast (yDHODH) are resistant to all mtETC inhibitors. We assessed the possibility of using yDHODH as a positive selectable marker for transfections of P. falciparum, including its use in gene disruption strategies. We constructed a transfection vector designed for gene disruption, termed pUF-1, containing the yDHODH gene as the positive selection marker in combination with a previously described fused yeast cytosine deaminase-uracil phosphoribosyl transferase gene as a negative selection marker. Transfection of the D10 strain followed by selection with atovaquone yielded positively selected parasites containing the plasmid, demonstrating that yDHODH can be used as a selective marker. Atovaquone, however, could not be used for such selection with the Dd2 strain of P. falciparum. On the other hand, we demonstrated that yDHODH transgenic parasites could be selected in both strains by Plasmodium DHODH-specific triazolopyrimidine-based inhibitors. Thus, selection with DHODH inhibitors was superior in that it successfully selected transgenic Dd2 parasites, as well as yielded transgenic parasites after a shorter period of selection. As a proof of concept, we have successfully disrupted the type II vacuolar proton-pumping pyrophosphatase gene (PfVP2) in P. falciparum by double crossover recombination, showing that this gene is not essential for the survival of blood stage parasites.