Deletion of the C26 Methyl Substituent from the Bryostatin Analogue Merle†23 Has Negligible Impact on Its Biological Profile and Potency.

Important strides are being made in understanding the effects of structural features of bryostatin 1, a candidate therapeutic agent for cancer and dementia, in conferring its potency toward protein kinase C and the unique spectrum of biological responses that it induces. A critical pharmacophoric element in bryostatin 1 is the secondary hydroxy group at the C26 position, with a corresponding primary hydroxy group playing an analogous role in binding of phorbol esters to protein kinase C. Herein, we describe the synthesis of a bryostatin homologue in which the C26 hydroxy group is primary, as it is in the phorbol esters, and show that its biological activity is almost indistinguishable from that of the corresponding compound with a secondary hydroxy group.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Fluorescent Bryostatin Analogues.

To investigate the cellular distribution of tumor-promoting vs. non-tumor-promoting bryostatin analogues, we synthesized fluorescently labeled variants of two bryostatin derivatives that have previously shown either phorbol ester-like or bryostatin-like biological activity in U937 leukemia cells. These new fluorescent analogues both displayed high affinity for protein kinase C (PKC) binding and retained the basic properties of the parent unlabeled compounds in U937 assays. The fluorescent compounds showed similar patterns of intracellular distribution in cells, however; this argues against an existing hypothesis that various patterns of intracellular distribution are responsible for differences in biological activity. Upon further characterization, the fluorescent compounds revealed a slow rate of cellular uptake; correspondingly, they showed reduced activity for cellular responses that were only transient upon treatment with phorbol ester or bryostatin 1.

Replacement of the Bryostatin A- and B-Pyran Rings With Phenyl Rings Leads to Loss of High Affinity Binding With PKC.

We describe a convergent synthesis of a bryostatin analogue in which the natural A- and B-ring pyrans have been replaced by phenyl rings. The new analogue exhibited PMA like behavior in cell assays, but failed to maintain high affinity binding for PKC, despite retaining an unaltered C-ring 'binding domain'.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Several Bryostatin Analogues Bearing a Diacylglycerol Lactone C-Ring.

As an initial step in designing a simplified bryostatin hybrid molecule, three bryostatin analogues bearing a diacylglycerol lactone-based C-ring, which possessed the requisite pharmacophores for binding to protein kinase C (PKC) together with a modified bryostatin-like A- and B-ring region, were synthesized and evaluated. Merle 46 and Merle 47 exhibited binding affinity to PKC alpha with Ki values of 7000 ± 990 and 4940 ± 470 nM, respectively. Reinstallation of the trans-olefin and gem-dimethyl group present in bryostatin 1 in Merle 48 resulted in improved binding affinity, 363 ± 42 nM. While Merle 46 and 47 were only marginally active biologically, Merle 48 showed sufficient activity on the U937 cells to confirm that it was PMA-like for growth and attachment, as predicted by the substitution pattern of its A- and B-rings.

Biological activity of the bryostatin analog Merle 23 on mouse epidermal cells and mouse skin.

Bryostatin 1, a complex macrocyclic lactone, is the subject of multiple clinical trials for cancer chemotherapy. Although bryostatin 1 biochemically functions like the classic mouse skin tumor promoter phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) to bind to and activate protein kinase C, paradoxically, it fails to induce many of the typical phorbol ester responses, including tumor promotion. Intense synthetic efforts are currently underway to develop simplified bryostatin analogs that preserve the critical functional features of bryostatin 1, including its lack of tumor promoting activity. The degree to which bryostatin analogs maintain the unique pattern of biological behavior of bryostatin 1 depends on the specific cellular system and the specific response. Merle 23 is a significantly simplified bryostatin analog that retains bryostatin like activity only to a limited extent. Here, we show that in mouse epidermal cells the activity of Merle 23 was either similar to bryostatin 1 or intermediate between bryostatin 1 and PMA, depending on the specific parameter examined. We then examined the hyperplastic and tumor promoting activity of Merle 23 on mouse skin. Merle 23 showed substantially reduced hyperplasia and was not tumor promoting at a dose comparable to that for PMA. These results suggest that there may be substantial flexibility in the design of bryostatin analogs that retain its lack of tumor promoting activity. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Neristatin 1 provides critical insight into bryostatin 1 structure-function relationships.

Bryostatin 1, a complex macrocyclic lactone isolated from Bugula neritina, has been the subject of multiple clinical trials for cancer. Although it functions as an activator of protein kinase C (PKC) in vitro, bryostatin 1 paradoxically antagonizes most responses to the prototypical PKC activator, the phorbol esters. The bottom half of the bryostatin 1 structure has been shown to be sufficient to confer binding to PKC. In contrast, we have previously shown that the top half of the bryostatin 1 structure is necessary for its unique biological behavior to antagonize phorbol ester responses. Neristatin 1 comprises a top half similar to that of bryostatin 1 together with a distinct bottom half that confers PKC binding. We report here that neristatin 1 is bryostatin 1-like, not phorbol ester-like, in its biological activity on U937 promyelocytic leukemia cells. We conclude that the top half of the bryostatin 1 structure is largely sufficient for bryostatin 1-like activity, provided the molecule also possesses an appropriate PKC binding domain.

Synthesis of a des-B-ring bryostatin analogue leads to an unexpected ring expansion of the bryolactone core.

A convergent synthesis of a des-B-ring bryostatin analogue is described. This analogue was found to undergo an unexpected ring expansion of the bryolactone core to generate the corresponding 21-membered macrocycle. The parent analogue and the ring-expanded product both displayed nanomolar binding affinity for PKC. Despite containing A-ring substitution identical to that of bryostatin 1 and displaying bryostatin-like biological function, the des-B-ring analogues displayed a phorbol-like biological function in cells. These studies shed new light on the role of the bryostatin B-ring in conferring bryo-like biological function to bryostatin analogues.

Molecular systems pharmacology: isoelectric focusing signature of protein kinase Cδ provides an integrated measure of its modulation in response to ligands.

Protein kinase C (PKC), a validated therapeutic target for cancer chemotherapy, provides a paradigm for assessing structure-activity relations, where ligand binding has multiple consequences for a target. For PKC, ligand binding controls not only PKC activation and multiple phosphorylations but also subcellular localization, affecting subsequent signaling. Using a capillary isoelectric focusing immunoassay system, we could visualize a high resolution isoelectric focusing signature of PKCδ upon stimulation by ligands of the phorbol ester and bryostatin classes. Derivatives that possessed different physicochemical characteristics and induced different patterns of biological response generated different signatures. Consistent with different patterns of PKCδ localization as one factor linked to these different signatures, we found different signatures for activated PKCδ from the nuclear and non-nuclear fractions. We conclude that the capillary isoelectric focusing immunoassay system may provide a window into the integrated consequences of ligand binding and thus afford a powerful platform for compound development.

Biological profile of the less lipophilic and synthetically more accessible bryostatin 7 closely resembles that of bryostatin 1.

The bryostatins are a group of 20 macrolides isolated by Pettit and co-workers from the marine organism Bugula neritina. Bryostatin 1, the flagship member of the family, has been the subject of intense chemical and biological investigations due to its remarkably diverse biological activities, including promising indications as therapy for cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and HIV. Other bryostatins, however, have attracted far less attention, most probably due to their relatively low natural abundance and associated scarcity of supply. Among all macrolides in this family, bryostatin 7 is biologically the most potent protein kinase C (PKC) ligand (in terms of binding affinity) and also the first bryostatin to be synthesized in the laboratory. Nonetheless, almost no biological studies have been carried out on this agent. We describe herein the total synthesis of bryostatin 7 based on our pyran annulation technology, which allows for the first detailed biological characterizations of bryostatin 7 with side-by-side comparisons to bryostatin 1. The results suggest that the more easily synthesized and less lipophilic bryostatin 7 may be an effective surrogate for bryostatin 1.

Role of the C8 gem-dimethyl group of bryostatin 1 on its unique pattern of biological activity.

The role of the C(8) gem-dimethyl group in the A-ring of bryostatin 1 has been examined through chemical synthesis and biological evaluation of a new analogue. Assays for biological function using U937, K562, and MV4-11 cells as well as the profiles for downregulation of PKC isozymes revealed that the presence of this group is not a critical determinant for the unique pattern of biological activity of bryostatin.

Some phorbol esters might partially resemble bryostatin 1 in their actions on LNCaP prostate cancer cells and U937 leukemia cells.

Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and bryostatin 1 are both potent protein kinase C (PKC) activators. In LNCaP human prostate cancer cells, PMA induces tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) secretion and inhibits proliferation; bryostatin 1 does not, and indeed blocks the response to PMA. This difference has been attributed to bryostatin 1 not localizing PKCδ to the plasma membrane. Since phorbol ester lipophilicity influences PKCδ localization, we have examined in LNCaP cells a series of phorbol esters and related derivatives spanning some eight logs in lipophilicity (logP) to see if any behave like bryostatin 1. The compounds showed marked differences in their effects on proliferation and TNFα secretion. For example, maximal responses for TNFα secretion relative to PMA ranged from 97 % for octyl-indolactam V to 24 % for phorbol 12,13-dibenzoate. Dose-response curves ranged from monophasic for indolactam V to markedly biphasic for sapintoxin D. The divergent patterns of response, however, correlated neither to lipophilicity, to plasma membrane translocation of PKCδ, nor to the ability to interact with model membranes. In U937 human leukemia cells, a second system in which PMA and bryostatin 1 have divergent effects, viz. PMA but not bryostatin 1 inhibits proliferation and induces attachment, all the compounds acted like PMA for proliferation, but several induced a reduced level or a biphasic dose-response curve for attachment. We conclude that active phorbol esters are not all equivalent. Depending on the system, some might partially resemble bryostatin 1 in their behavior; this encourages the concept that bryostatin-like behavior may be obtained from other structural templates.

The synthetic bryostatin analog Merle 23 dissects distinct mechanisms of bryostatin activity in the LNCaP human prostate cancer cell line.

Bryostatin 1 has attracted considerable attention both as a cancer chemotherapeutic agent and for its unique activity. Although it functions, like phorbol esters, as a potent protein kinase C (PKC) activator, it paradoxically antagonizes many phorbol ester responses in cells. Because of its complex structure, little is known of its structure-function relations. Merle 23 is a synthetic derivative, differing from bryostatin 1 at only four positions. However, in U-937 human leukemia cells, Merle 23 behaves like a phorbol ester and not like bryostatin 1. Here, we characterize the behavior of Merle 23 in the human prostate cancer cell line LNCaP. In this system, bryostatin 1 and phorbol ester have contrasting activities, with the phorbol ester but not bryostatin 1 blocking cell proliferation or tumor necrosis factor alpha secretion, among other responses. We show that Merle 23 displays a highly complex pattern of activity in this system. Depending on the specific biological response or mechanistic change, it was bryostatin-like, phorbol ester-like, intermediate in its behavior, or more effective than either. The pattern of response, moreover, varied depending on the conditions. We conclude that the newly emerging bryostatin derivatives such as Merle 23 provide powerful tools to dissect subsets of bryostatin mechanism and response.

Total synthesis of bryostatin 1.

Bryostatin 1 is a marine natural product that is a very promising lead compound because of the potent biological activity it displays against a variety of human disease states. We describe herein the first total synthesis of this agent. The synthetic route adopted is a highly convergent one in which the preformed, heavily functionalized pyran rings A and C are united by "pyran annulation", the TMSOTf-promoted reaction between a hydroxyallylsilane appended to the A-ring fragment and an aldehyde contained in the C-ring fragment, with concomitant formation of the B ring. Further elaborations of the resulting very highly functionalized intermediate include macrolactonization and selective cleavage of just one of five ester linkages present.

The bryostatin 1 A-ring acetate is not the critical determinant for antagonism of phorbol ester-induced biological responses.

The contribution of the A-ring C(7) acetate to the function of bryostatin 1 has been investigated through synthesis and biological evaluation of an analogue incorporating this feature into the bryopyran core structure. No enhanced binding affinity for protein kinase C (PKC) was observed, relative to previously characterized analogues lacking the C(7) acetate. Functional assays showed biological responses characteristic of those induced by the phorbol ester PMA and distinctly different from those observed with bryostatin 1.

Substitution on the A-ring confers to bryopyran analogues the unique biological activity characteristic of bryostatins and distinct from that of the phorbol esters.

A close structural analogue of bryostatin 1, which differs from bryostatin 1 only by the absence of the C(30) carbomethoxy group (on the C(13) enoate of the B-ring), has been prepared by total synthesis. Biological assays reveal a crucial role for substitution in the bryostatin 1 A-ring in conferring those responses which are characteristic of bryostatin 1 and distinct from those observed with PMA.

Total synthesis of epothilones B and D: stannane equivalents for beta-keto ester dianions.

Studies leading to a total synthesis of epothilones B and D are described. The overall synthetic plan was based on late-stage fragment assembly of two segments representing C(1)-C(9) and C(10)-C(21) of the structure. The C(1)-C(9) fragment was prepared by elaboration of commercially available (2R)-3-hydroxy-2-methylpropanoate at both ends of the three-carbon unit. Introduction of carbons 1-4 containing the gem-dimethyl unit was achieved in a convergent manner using a diastereoselective addition of a stannane equivalent of a beta-keto ester dianion. An enantioselective addition of such a stannane equivalent for a beta-keto ester dianion was also used to fashion one version of the C(10)-C(21) subunit; however, the fragment assembly (using bimolecular esterification followed by ring-closing metathesis) with this subunit failed. Therefore, fragment assembly was achieved using a Wittig reaction; this was followed by macrolactonization to close the macrocycle. The C(10)-C(21) subunit needed for this approach was prepared in an efficient manner using the Corey-Kim reaction as a key element. Other key reactions in the synthesis include a stereoselective SmI(2) reduction of a beta-hydroxy ketone and a critical opening of a valerolactone with aniline which required extensive investigation.

Diastereoselective synthesis of cyclopentapyridazinones via radical cyclization: synthetic studies toward halichlorine.

The pyridazinone ring system serves as an excellent scaffold for the diastereoselective preparation of novel cis-fused cyclopentapyridazinones utilizing the directed 5-exo radical cyclization approach. This overall approach was successfully employed in the preparation of a functionalized aza-spirocycle.

Convergent assembly of highly potent analogues of bryostatin 1 via pyran annulation: bryostatin look-alikes that mimic phorbol ester function.

Highly potent bryostatin analogues which contain the complete bryostatin core structure have been synthesized using a pyran annulation approach as a key strategic element. The A ring pyran was assembled using a pyran annulation reaction between a C1-C8 hydroxy allylsilane and an aldehyde comprising C9-C13. This pyran was transformed to a new hydroxy allylsilane and then coupled with a preformed C ring aldehyde subunit in a second pyran annulation, with concomitant formation of the B ring. This tricyclic intermediate was elaborated to bryostatin analogues which displayed nanomolar to subnanomolar affinity for PKC, but displayed properties indistinguishable from a phorbol ester in a proliferation/attachment assay.

A new method for the synthesis of H(4)-BINOL.

A method amenable to the gram scale synthesis of (R)-H 4-BINOL, a derivative of (R)-BINOL and ligand of interest in asymmetric catalysis, is described. The key step is the net partial hydrogenation of (R)-BINOL made possible by prior bis-etherification of the parent BINOL.