Compression moulding and injection over moulding of porous PEEK components.

A simple and adaptable process for the production of porous PEEK has been demonstrated herein, which uses compression moulding to infiltrate molten PEEK into of a packed bed of salt beads. The process has the capacity to vary the pore size and porosity within the range suitable for materials to replace bone, but compressive testing showed the stiffness to be well below the target to match trabecular bone. This issue was addressed by creating a hybrid structure, integrating "pillars" of solid PEEK into the porous structure, by the injection over-moulding of compression moulded PEEK-salt inserts that contained drilled holes. Good bonding between the moulding and the insert was demonstrated and it was found that as little as 35 mm2 of support, in the form of PEEK "pillars" was required to achieve the target performance.

Structural and physico-chemical analysis of calcium/strontium substituted, near-invert phosphate based glasses for biomedical applications.

Neutron diffraction, 23Na and 31P NMR, and FTIR spectroscopy have been used to investigate the structural effects of substituting CaO with SrO in a 40P2O5·(16-x)CaO·20Na2O·24MgO·xSrO glass, where x is 0, 4, 8, 12 and 16mol%. The 31P solid-state NMR results showed similar amounts of Q1 and Q2 units for all of the multicomponent glasses investigated, showing that the substitution of Sr for Ca has no effect on the phosphate network. The M-O coordinations (M=Mg, Ca, Sr, Na) were determined for binary alkali and alkaline earth metaphosphates using neutron diffraction and broad asymmetric distributions of bond length were observed, with coordination numbers that were smaller and bond lengths that were shorter than in corresponding crystals. The Mg-O coordination number was determined most reliably as 5.0(2). The neutron diffraction results for the multicomponent glasses are consistent with a structural model in which the coordination of Ca, Sr and Na is the same as in the binary metaphosphate glass, whereas there is a definite shift of Mg-O bonds to longer distance. There is also a small but consistent increase in the Mg-O coordination number and the width of the distribution of Mg-O bond lengths, as Sr substitutes for Ca. Functional properties, including glass transition temperatures, thermal processing windows, dissolution rates and ion release profiles were also investigated. Dissolution studies showed a decrease in dissolution rate with initial addition of 4mol% SrO, but further addition of SrO showed little change. The ion release profiles followed a similar trend to the observed dissolution rates. The limited changes in structure and dissolution rates observed for substitution of Ca with Sr in these fixed 40mol% P2O5 glasses were attributed to their similarities in terms of ionic size and charge. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Phosphate based glasses are extremely well suited for the delivery of therapeutic ions in biomedical applications, and in particular strontium plays an important role in the treatment of osteoporosis. We show firstly that the substitution of strontium for calcium in bioactive phosphate glasses can be used to control the dissolution rate of the glass, and hence the rate at which therapeutic ions are delivered. We then go on to examine in detail the influence of Sr/Ca substitution on the atomic sites in the glass, using advanced structural probes, especially neutron diffraction. The environments of most cations in the glass are unaffected by the substitution, with the exception of Mg, which becomes more disordered.

Orally Administered Fructose Increases the Numbers of Peripheral Lymphocytes Reduced by Exposure of Mice to Gamma or SPE-like Proton Radiation.

Exposure of the whole body or a major portion of the body to ionizing radiation can result in Acute Radiation Sickness (ARS), which can cause symptoms that range from mild to severe, and include death. One of the syndromes that can occur during ARS is the hematopoietic syndrome, which is characterized by a reduction in bone marrow cells as well as the number of circulating blood cells. Doses capable of causing this syndrome can result from conventional radiation therapy and accidental exposure to ionizing radiation. It is of concern that this syndrome could also occur during space exploration class missions in which astronauts could be exposed to significant doses of solar particle event (SPE) radiation. Of particular concern is the reduction of lymphocytes and granulocytes, which are major components of the immune system. A significant reduction in their numbers can compromise the immune system, causing a higher risk for the development of infections which could jeopardize the success of the mission. Although there are no specific countermeasures utilized for the ARS resulting from exposure to space radiation(s), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) has been proposed as a countermeasure for the low number of neutrophils caused by SPE radiation, but so far no countermeasure exists for a reduced number of circulating lymphocytes. The present study demonstrates that orally administered fructose significantly increases the number of peripheral lymphocytes reduced by exposure of mice to 2 Gy of gamma- or SPE-like proton radiation, making it a potential countermeasure for this biological end-point.

Evidence of Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation in a Porcine Model Following Radiation Exposure.

Recent evidence has suggested that disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) plays an integral role in death at the LD50 dose of either gamma or solar particle event (SPE)-like proton radiation in ferrets. In these studies, Yucatan minipigs were evaluated to determine whether they were susceptible to the development of radiation induced DIC. Yucatan minipigs were exposed to a dose of 2.5 Gray (Gy) with x-rays and monitored over the course of 30 days. Evidence of DIC was evaluated by way of thromboelastometry parameters, platelet counts, fibrinogen concentration, and the d-dimer assay. Pigs exposed to x-rays developed signs of DIC within 2 days post-irradiation. The development of DIC was exacerbated over the course of the studies, and one of the pigs died at day 14 and another had to be euthanized on day 16 post-irradiation. For both of these pigs, DIC was evident at the time of death. The following observations were indicated or were suggestive of DIC: whole blood clotting was impaired (as evidenced by thromboelastometry alterations), there were decreased platelet counts, elevated d-dimer concentrations in the blood, and/or hemorrhaging and the presence of fibrin in tissues observed during post-mortem examination. The extrapolation of data from these studies, in combination with other published data, have led to the hypothesis that there could be a correlation between the propensity to develop DIC, as indicated by hemorrhaging at death at relatively low doses of radiation, and the LD50 for a particular species. Our data suggest that the development of DIC may contribute to death at the LD50 dose in large mammals.

Complexity in seemingly simple sodium magnesiate systems.

A systematic study both in the solid- and solution-state, was carried out for a series of sodium magnesiates containing the utility amide ligand 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexamethyldisilazide (HMDS). The first complex considered is the donor-free bisamido monoalkyl polymeric complex [Na(µ-HMDS)2Mg((n)Bu)]∞ 1. The reactivity of 1 with common tertiary bidentate donors including N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA) or its chiral relative (1R,2R)-tetramethylcyclohexyldiamine [(R,R)-TMCDA] is detailed. Surprisingly, the products of these reactions are not simple diamine adducts but are solvent separated sodium magnesiate systems [(TMEDA)2·Na](+)[Mg(HMDS)3](-) 2 and [{(R,R)-TMCDA}2·Na](+)[Mg(HMDS)3](-) 3. By concentrating on the likely equilibria which may give rise to formation of 2, a potential intermediate complexed ion pair [{(TMEDA)2·Na}(µ-(n)Bu)Mg(HMDS)2] 4 was isolated. Additionally, the novel "inverse magnesiates" [{Na(µ-HMDS)}2Mg(µ-(n)Bu)2·(TMEDA)]∞ 5 and [{Na(µ-HMDS)}2Mg(µ-(n)Bu)2·{(R,R)-TMCDA}]∞ 6, were obtained by reacting solutions of composition "NaMg(HMDS)((n)Bu)2" (a likely by-product in the formation of 2 from 1), with TMEDA or (R,R)-TMCDA. The structure and nature of these bimetallic complexes have been determined using a combination of X-ray crystallographic studies and multinuclear NMR spectroscopy.

Effect of SPE-like proton or photon radiation on the kinetics of mouse peripheral blood cells and radiation biological effectiveness determinations.

Exploration missions outside low-Earth orbit are being planned; therefore, it is critical to understand the risk astronauts would be exposed to in the space environment, especially during extravehicular activities (EVAs). Reductions in white blood cell (WBC) numbers can occur as a result of exposure to solar particle event (SPE) radiation. The aim of the present study was to determine the duration of the effects on blood cell numbers from exposure to a single whole-body dose of SPE-like proton radiation or photon radiation as well as to determine the radiation biological effectiveness (RBE) values at those times when radiation exposure causes blood cell numbers to experience the most critical effects when using mice as a model. Our results indicate that both types of radiation cause significant reductions in the numbers of all blood cell types at different times post-irradiation. The RBE values were not significantly different from 1.0. These results indicate that the risk estimations for astronauts from exposure of mice to SPE-like proton radiation are comparable to those previously made for doses of standard reference radiations, suggesting that countermeasures should be developed for the decreases in blood cell counts observed following the exposure of mice to SPE radiation.

Kinetics of neutrophils in mice exposed to radiation and/or granulocyte colony-stimulating factor treatment.

Astronauts have the potential to develop the hematopoietic syndrome as a result of exposure to radiation from a solar particle event (SPE) during exploration class missions. This syndrome is characterized by a reduction in the number of circulating blood cells (cytopenias). In the present study the effects of SPE-like proton and γ radiation on the kinetics of circulating neutrophils were evaluated during a one-month time period using mice as a model system. The results revealed that exposure to a 2 Gy dose of either SPE-like proton or γ radiation significantly decreased the number of circulating neutrophils, with two nadirs observed on day 4 and day 16 postirradiation. Low circulating neutrophil count (neutropenia) is particularly important because it can increase the risk of astronauts developing infections, which can compromise the success of the mission. Thus, two granulocyte colony-stimulating factors (G-CSFs), filgrastim and pegfilgrastim were evaluated as countermeasures for this endpoint. Both forms of G-CSF significantly increased neutrophil counts in irradiated mice, however, the effect of pegfilgrastim was more potent and lasted longer than filgrastim. Using the expression of CD11b, CD18 and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as markers of neutrophil activation, it was determined that the neutrophils in the irradiated mice treated with pegfilgrastim were physiologically active. Thus, these results suggest that pegfilgrastim could be a potential countermeasure for the reduced number of circulating neutrophils in irradiated animals.

Effects of solar particle event proton radiation on parameters related to ferret emesis.

The effectiveness of simulated solar particle event (SPE) proton radiation to induce retching and vomiting was evaluated in the ferret experimental animal model. The endpoints measured in the study included: (1) the fraction of animals that retched or vomited, (2) the number of retches or vomits observed, (3) the latency period before the first retch or vomit and (4) the duration between the first and last retching or vomiting events. The results demonstrated that γ ray and proton irradiation delivered at a high dose rate of 0.5 Gy/min induced dose-dependent changes in the endpoints related to retching and vomiting. The minimum radiation doses required to induce statistically significant changes in retching- and vomiting-related endpoints were 0.75 and 1.0 Gy, respectively, and the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of proton radiation at the high dose rate did not significantly differ from 1. Similar but less consistent and smaller changes in the retching- and vomiting-related endpoints were observed for groups irradiated with γ rays and protons delivered at a low dose rate of 0.5 Gy/h. Since this low dose rate is similar to a radiation dose rate expected during a SPE, these results suggest that the risk of SPE radiation-induced vomiting is low and may reach statistical significance only when the radiation dose reaches 1 Gy or higher.

Acute hematological effects of solar particle event proton radiation in the porcine model.

Acute radiation sickness (ARS) is expected to occur in astronauts during large solar particle events (SPEs). One parameter associated with ARS is the hematopoietic syndrome, which can result from decreased numbers of circulating blood cells in those exposed to radiation. The peripheral blood cells are critical for an adequate immune response, and low blood cell counts can result in an increased susceptibility to infection. In this study, Yucatan minipigs were exposed to proton radiation within a range of skin dose levels expected for an SPE (estimated from previous SPEs). The proton-radiation exposure resulted in significant decreases in total white blood cell count (WBC) within 1 day of exposure, 60% below baseline control value or preirradiation values. At the lowest level of the blood cell counts, lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes and eosinophils were decreased up to 89.5%, 60.4%, 73.2% and 75.5%, respectively, from the preirradiation values. Monocytes and lymphocytes were decreased by an average of 70% (compared to preirradiation values) as early as 4 h after radiation exposure. Skin doses greater than 5 Gy resulted in decreased blood cell counts up to 90 days after exposure. The results reported here are similar to studies of ARS using the nonhuman primate model, supporting the use of the Yucatan minipig as an alternative. In addition, the high prevalence of hematologic abnormalities resulting from exposure to acute, whole-body SPE-like proton radiation warrants the development of appropriate countermeasures to prevent or treat ARS occurring in astronauts during space travel.

Single electron transfer (SET) activity of the dialkyl-amido sodium zincate [(TMEDA)·Na(µ-TMP)(µ-tBu)Zn(tBu)] towards TEMPO and chalcone.

More usually thought of as a base, the sodium zincate [(TMEDA)·Na(µ-TMP)(µ-(t)Bu)Zn((t)Bu)] 1 can undergo single electron transfer with TEMPO to give [(TMEDA)·Na(µ-TMP)(µ-TEMPO(-))Zn((t)Bu)] 2 and [(TMEDA)·Na(µ-TEMPO(-))(2)Zn((t)Bu)] 3; and with chalcone [PhCOCH=CHPh] gives [{(TMEDA)·Na(µ-TMP)Zn((t)Bu)}(2)(µ-OCPhCH=CHPhCHPhCH=CPh-µ-O)] which contains two chalcone units C-C coupled though their benzylic C atoms.

Antioxidant dietary supplementation in mice exposed to proton radiation attenuates expression of programmed cell death-associated genes.

Dietary antioxidants have radioprotective effects after ionizing radiation exposure that limit hematopoietic cell depletion. We sought to determine the mechanism of proton-induced hematopoietic cell death in animals receiving a moderate dose of whole-body proton radiation. In addition, animals were maintained on diets supplemented with or without dietary antioxidants. In the presence of the dietary antioxidants, total bone marrow mRNA and protein expression of apoptosis-related genes were decreased compared to the expression profiles in the irradiated mice not receiving the antioxidant formulation. These data confirm high-energy proton-induced gene expression of classical apoptosis markers including BAX, caspase-3 and PARP-1. Antioxidant supplementation resulted in decreased expression of these genes in addition to increased protein expression of the anti-apoptosis markers Bcl2 and Bcl-xL. In conclusion, oral supplementation with antioxidants appears to be an effective approach for radioprotection against hematopoietic cell death.

Effects of proton radiation dose, dose rate and dose fractionation on hematopoietic cells in mice.

The present study evaluated the acute effects of radiation dose, dose rate and fractionation as well as the energy of protons in hematopoietic cells of irradiated mice. The mice were irradiated with a single dose of 51.24 MeV protons at a dose of 2 Gy and a dose rate of 0.05-0.07 Gy/min or 1 GeV protons at doses of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 Gy delivered in a single dose at dose rates of 0.05 or 0.5 Gy/min or in five daily dose fractions at a dose rate of 0.05 Gy/min. Sham-irradiated animals were used as controls. The results demonstrate a dose-dependent loss of white blood cells (WBCs) and lymphocytes by up to 61% and 72%, respectively, in mice irradiated with protons at doses up to 2 Gy. The results also demonstrate that the dose rate, fractionation pattern and energy of the proton radiation did not have significant effects on WBC and lymphocyte counts in the irradiated animals. These results suggest that the acute effects of proton radiation on WBC and lymphocyte counts are determined mainly by the radiation dose, with very little contribution from the dose rate (over the range of dose rates evaluated), fractionation and energy of the protons.

Countermeasures against space radiation induced oxidative stress in mice.

Of particular concern for the health of astronauts during space travel is radiation from protons and high atomic number (Z), high energy particles (HZE particles). Space radiation is known to induce oxidative stress in astronauts after extended space flight. In the present study, the total antioxidant status was used as a biomarker to evaluate oxidative stress induced by proton and HZE particle radiation in the plasma of CBA mice and the protective effect of dietary supplement agents. The results indicate that exposure to proton and HZE particle radiation significantly decreased the plasma level of total antioxidants in the irradiated CBA mice. Dietary supplementation with L: -selenomethionine (SeM) or a combination of selected antioxidant agents (which included SeM) could partially or completely prevent the decrease in the total antioxidant status in the plasma of animals exposed to proton or HZE particle radiation. These findings suggest that exposure to space radiation may compromise the capacity of the host antioxidant defense system; this adverse biological effect can be prevented at least partially by dietary supplementation with agents expected to have effects on antioxidant activities.

Protective effects of L-selenomethionine on space radiation induced changes in gene expression.

Ionizing radiation can produce adverse biological effects in astronauts during space travel. Of particular concern are the types of radiation from highly energetic, heavy, charged particles known as HZE particles. The aims of our studies are to characterize HZE particle radiation induced biological effects and evaluate the effects of L-selenomethionine (SeM) on these adverse biological effects. In this study, microarray technology was used to measure HZE radiation induced changes in gene expression, as well as to evaluate modulation of these changes by SeM. Human thyroid epithelial cells (HTori-3) were irradiated (1 GeV/n iron ions) in the presence or in the absence of 5 microM SeM. At 6 h post-irradiation, all cells were harvested for RNA isolation. Gene Chip U133Av2 from Affymetrix was used for the analysis of gene expression, and ANOVA and EASE were used for a determination of the genes and biological processes whose differential expression is statistically significant. Results of this microarray study indicate that exposure to small doses of radiation from HZE particles, 10 and 20 cGy from iron ions, induces statistically significant differential expression of 196 and 610 genes, respectively. In the presence of SeM, differential expression of 77 out of 196 genes (exposure to 10 cGy) and 336 out of 610 genes (exposure to 20 cGy) is abolished. In the presence or in the absence of SeM, radiation from HZE particles induces differential expression of genes whose products have roles in the induction of G1/S arrest during the mitotic cell cycle, as well as heat shock proteins. Some of the genes, whose expressions were affected by radiation from HZE particles and were unchanged in irradiated cells treated with SeM, have been shown to have altered expression levels in cancer cells. The conclusions of this report are that radiation from HZE particles can induce differential expression of many genes, some of which are known to play roles in the same processes that have been shown to be activated in cells exposed to radiation from photons (like cell cycle arrest in G1/S), and that supplementation with SeM abolishes HZE particle-induced differential expression of many genes. Understanding the roles that these genes play in the radiation-induced transformation of cells may help to decipher the origins of radiation-induced cancer.

Evidence for a stimulatory action of melanin-concentrating hormone on luteinising hormone release involving MCH1 and melanocortin-5 receptors.

The present series of studies aimed to further our understanding of the role of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) neurones in the central regulation of luteinising hormone (LH) release in the female rat. LH release was stimulated when MCH was injected bilaterally into the rostral preoptic area (rPOA) or medial preoptic area (mPOA), but not when injected into the zona incerta (ZI), of oestrogen-primed ovariectomised rats. In rats that were steroid-primed to generate a surge-like release of LH, MCH administration into the ZI blocked this rise in LH release: no such effect occurred when MCH was injected into the rPOA or mPOA. In vitro, MCH stimulated gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release from hypothalamic explants. Double-label immunohistochemistry showed GnRH-immunoreactive neurones in the vicinity of and intermingled with immunoreactive MCH processes. MCH is the endogenous ligand of the MCH type 1 receptor (MCH1-R). Previously, we have shown a role for melanocortin-5 receptors (MC5-R) in the stimulatory action of MCH, so we next investigated the involvement of both MCH1-R and/or MC5-R in mediating the actions of MCH on GnRH and hence LH release. The stimulatory action of MCH in the rPOA was inhibited by administration of antagonists for either MCH1-R or MC5-R. However, in the mPOA, the action of MCH was blocked only by the MC5-R antagonist. LH release was stimulated by an agonist for MC5-R injected into the rPOA or mPOA; this was blocked by the MC5-R antagonist but not the MCH1-R antagonist. These results indicate that both MCH1-R and MC5-R are involved in the central control of LH release by MCH.

Flux-assisted wetting and spreading of Al on TiC.

The effect of a K-Al-F-based flux on the spreading of Al on TiC, at temperatures up to 900 degrees C, in Ar and in air has been studied. Whilst obtuse contact angles were observed without flux, the flux facilitated rapid spreading to a perfect wetting condition, in both Ar and in air. The atmosphere was found to have a weak effect on the spreading kinetics as the liquid flux provides a locally protective atmosphere by spreading over the TiC surface and also on the solid surface of Al. The flux dissolves the aluminium oxide, covering Al, so that when Al melts, and the oxide layer has been removed or weakened, intimate contact occurs between liquid Al and the TiC substrate facilitating spontaneous spreading and instantaneous wetting of liquid Al on TiC. Since flux-assisted spreading is very rapid and occurs without the formation of a reaction layer at the Al/TiC interface, this process is very different to the reactive wetting behaviour previously reported in the Al-TiC system.

Effect of powder oxide content on the expansion and stability of PM-route Al foams.

The oxide content in Al powders has been found to have a significant effect on the expansion and stability of foams made via a PM route. With low oxide contents (O<0.3 wt%) expansion is moderate and the foam structure is unstable. Larger expansions, improved foam stability and more homogeneous foam structures are achieved if the amount of oxide in the powder is moderate (O=0.3-0.6 wt%). Foaming precursors with excessive oxide contents (O>0.6 wt%) results in small expansions but very stable foam structures. Oxides were observed to form clusters of crumpled films, which at higher levels form a network which restricts the drainage of liquid from the cell walls and Plateau borders, but which also inhibit foam expansion. Oxide clusters in the cell walls lead to a decrease in the minimum cell wall thickness, resulting in an increase in foam expansion.

The protease inhibitor, Bowman-Birk Inhibitor, suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: a potential oral therapy for multiple sclerosis.

Available treatments for multiple sclerosis (MS) require frequent injections and have significant side effects. Proteases generated during inflammation are involved in the induction of tissue damage during inflammatory demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS). The Bowman-Birk Inhibitor (BBI), a soy-derived protease inhibitor with anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory properties, has been shown to be well tolerated in clinical trials for pre-cancerous conditions, such as oral leukoplakia and the inflammatory disease, ulcerative colitis. We hypothesized that BBI may modulate experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. The BBI concentrate (BBIC), a soybean extract enriched in BBI, was administered to myelin basic protein (MBP)-immunized Lewis rats by gastric gavage in different treatment regimens, during the induction or the effector phase of disease. BBIC significantly delayed disease onset and suppressed disease severity, clinically and pathologically, in all treatment protocols. Both in vitro and ex vivo, BBIC inhibited MBP-specific proliferation of lymph node cells. BBIC reduced the activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9 in spleen cell supernatants and was detected in the CNS of treated rats. BBIC suppresses EAE, it can be administered orally, and it is safe and relatively inexpensive. It may have a therapeutic role in patients with MS.

Central orexin A has site-specific effects on luteinizing hormone release in female rats.

Orexin A stimulates GnRH release from hypothalamic explants in vitro. The sites of action of orexin A in the regulation of LH release have been investigated in vivo in ovariectomized rats that were given vehicle or estradiol benzoate (EB), with or without an injection of progesterone 48 h later. Orexin A was administered intrahypothalamically under Saffan anesthesia, 50 h after the EB or vehicle; its effects on plasma LH levels were monitored in sequential blood samples. Orexin A (1.0 microg/side) injected into the rostral preoptic area (rPOA) at the level of the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis had a stimulatory effect on LH release in EB-treated ovariectomized rats. When orexin A was injected into the medial POA (mPOA) or the arcuate/median eminence, it had an inhibitory effect on the LH surge that occurs in ovariectomized rats primed with EB plus progesterone. Orexin A injected into the mPOA also reduced LH levels in ovariectomized rats untreated with ovarian steroids. Both the stimulatory and inhibitory effects of orexin A were antagonized by SB334867A, a selective orexin 1 receptor antagonist. Furthermore, when given alone into the rPOA, this antagonist attenuated the LH surge induced by EB plus progesterone. Thus, orexin appears to have a dual effect on LH release, being stimulatory in the rPOA and inhibitory in the mPOA or arcuate/median eminence. Both effects may be mediated, at least in part, by the orexin 1 receptor. Double label immunohistochemistry revealed close appositions between orexin A immunoreactive varicosities and a small proportion of GnRH cell bodies in the rPOA. It is suggested that the stimulatory effect of orexin A on LH release may involve direct actions on GnRH neurons.

Effect of direct injection of melanin-concentrating hormone into the paraventricular nucleus: further evidence for a stimulatory role in the adrenal axis via SLC-1.

Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) is implicated in the control of a number of hormonal axes including the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis. Previous studies have shown that there is evidence for both a stimulatory and an inhibitory action on the HPA axis; therefore, we attempted to further characterize the effects of MCH on this axis. Intracerebroventricular injection of MCH increased circulating adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) at 10 min post injection. Injection of MCH directly into the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) was found to increase both circulating ACTH and corticosterone 10 min after injection. Additionally, MCH was found to increase corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) release from hypothalamic explants, and this effect was abolished by the specific SLC-1 antagonist SB-568849. Neuropeptide EI, a peptide from the same precursor as MCH was also found to increase CRF release from explants. These results suggest that MCH has a stimulatory role in the HPA axis via SLC-1, and that MCH exerts its effects predominantly through the PVN CRF neuronal populations