A new approach to nationwide sanitation planning for developing countries: Case study of Indonesia.

Many developing countries struggle to provide wastewater and solid waste services. The backlog in access has been partly attributed to the absence of a functional sanitation planning framework. Various planning tools are available; however a comprehensive framework that directly links a government policy to nationwide planning is missing. Therefore, we propose a framework to facilitate the nationwide planning process for the implementation of wastewater and solid waste services. The framework requires inputs from government planners and experts in the formulation of starting points and targets. Based on a limited number of indicators (population density, urban functions) three outputs are generated. The first output is a visualization of the spatial distribution of wastewater and solid waste systems to support regional priority setting in planning and create awareness. Secondly, the total number of people served, budget requirements and distribution of systems is determined. Thirdly, the required budget is allocated to the responsible institution to assure effective implementation. The determined budgets are specified by their beneficiaries, distinguishing urban, rural, poor and non-poor households. The framework was applied for Indonesia and outputs were adopted in the National Development Plan. The required budget to reach the Indonesian government's 2019 target was determined to be 25 billion US$ over 5years. The contribution from the national budget required a more than fivefold increase compared to the current budget allocation in Indonesia, corresponding to an increase from 0.5 to 2.7 billion US$ per year. The budget for campaigning, advocacy and institutional strengthening to enable implementation was determined to be 10% of the total budget. The proposed framework is not only suitable for Indonesia, but could also be applied to any developing country that aims to increase access to wastewater and solid waste facilities.

Feasibility analysis of wastewater and solid waste systems for application in Indonesia.

Indonesia is one of many developing countries with a backlog in achieving targets for the implementation of wastewater and solid waste collection, treatment and recovery systems. Therefore a technical and financial feasibility analysis of these systems was performed using Indonesia as an example. COD, BOD, nitrogen, phosphorus and pathogen removal efficiencies, energy requirements, sludge production, land use and resource recovery potential (phosphorus, energy, duckweed, compost, water) for on-site, community based and off-site wastewater systems were determined. Solid waste systems (conventional, centralized and decentralized resource recovery) were analyzed according to land requirement, compost and energy production and recovery of plastic and paper. In the financial analysis, investments, operational costs & benefits and Total Lifecycle Costs (TLC) of all investigated options were compared. Technical performance and TLC were used to guide system selection for implementation in different residential settings. An analysis was undertaken to determine the effect of price variations of recoverable resources and land prices on TLC. A 10-fold increase in land prices for land intensive wastewater systems resulted in a 5 times higher TLC, whereas a 4-fold increase in the recovered resource selling price resulted in maximum 1.3 times higher TLC. For solid waste, these impacts were reversed - land price and resource selling price variations resulted in a maximum difference in TLC of 1.8 and 4 respectively. Technical and financial performance analysis can support decision makers in system selection and anticipate the impact of price variations on long-term operation. The technical analysis was based on published results of international research and the approach can be applied for other tropical, developing countries. All costs were converted to per capita unit costs and can be updated to assess other countries' estimated costs and benefits. Consequently, the approach can be used to guide wastewater and solid waste system planning in developing countries.

Experimental study of a novel hybrid constructed wetland for water reuse and its application in Southern China.

A new type of hybrid constructed wetland (CW), consisting of both vertical-baffled flow wetland (VBFW) and horizontal subsurface flow wetland (HSFW), has been deployed in Southern China to naturally accelerate the removal of organic matter and nitrogen. The hybrid CW system is characterised by a combination of continuous baffled flow vertical wetland and 'S' pattern horizontal subsurface flow wetland with natural aeration ditches to increase the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the HSFW bed. An internal circulatory system from the HSFW effluent back to the VBFW may optionally be operated to enhance the biological denitrification effect. Cyperus alternifolius is the main macrophyte in the wetland bed. The performance of the hybrid CW was studied with a pilot-scale system and three full-scale systems for municipal sewage treatment in Southern China. The results suggest that this new hybrid CW can achieve removal efficiencies of chemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, ammonia nitrogen, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus of better than 83.6, 95.0, 71.7, 64.5 and 68.1% respectively, with a specific wetland bed area of 0.70-0.93 m(2) PE(-1). The mean effluent concentrations of these parameters would meet the regulatory discharge limits for wastewater treatment systems (GB18918, 2002) and reuse in the context of agricultural irrigation solutions in China.

Designing sustainable sanitation in urban planning proposed for Changzhou, China.

China is undergoing rapid urbanization and economic development. This requires a new approach on spatial planning and environmental infrastructure. In the presented project an example of this approach is given for the city of Changzhou (China) where a new residential area (Qinglong district) will be developed for 100.000 inhabitants. Key issue within the formulation of sustainable sanitation concepts is the integration and management of water, waste and energy in such a way that they will become beneficial to the establishment of the envisaged green city. Starting point was the closing of material cycles focusing on possibilities to recover and reuse valuable resources and energy from "waste" produced in an urban setting. Four different scenarios focusing on water, nutrient and energy recovery were compared with the baseline wastewater management practice. Besides environmental benefits, the economical benefits of sustainable sanitation concepts are attractive, the break even point with the baseline scenario, is already after 5 years, provided that recovered resources will be sold for a marketable price. We believe that presented concepts are applicable for a wide range of new urban development initiatives in China and similar rapidly developing densely populated regions worldwide.

Spontaneous condensation in DNA-polystyrene- b-poly(l-lysine) polyelectrolyte block copolymer mixtures.

We investigated the condensation of calf thymus DNA by amphiphilic polystyrene(m)-b-poly(l-lysine)(n) block copolymers ( PS(m)-b- PLys(n), m, n = degree of polymerization), using small-angle X-ray scattering, polarized optical microscopy and laser scanning confocal microscopy. Microscopy studies showed that the DNA condenses in the form of fibrillar precipitates, with an irregular structure, due to electrostatic interactions between PLys and DNA. This is not modified by the presence of hydrophobic PS block. Scattering experiments show that the structure of the polyplexes corresponds to a local order of DNA rods which becomes more compact upon increasing n. It can be concluded that for DNA/ PS(m)-b- PLys(n) polyplexes, the balance between the PLys block length and the excess charge in the system plays an essential role in the formation of a liquid crystalline phase.

Polarization confocal microscopy and congo red fluorescence: a simple and rapid method to determine the mean cellulose fibril orientation in plants.

The mean or net preferential orientation of cellulose fibrils in plant cell walls is detected with polarization confocal laser scanning microscopy using the fluorescence dichroism of Congo Red. Single cells, arrays of cells in a tissue, or the epidermis of whole organs can be assayed in vivo. Aerial parts require an extra pectinase treatment because of the cuticle, which is impermeable to aqueous solutions. Peeling off the epidermis can be an elegant alternative, especially for leaves. With this method the net preferential fibril orientation can be related to the symmetry axis of the cell in quantitative terms. Data issuing from this approach are useful in current research on plant biomechanics.