Flavobacterium covae is the predominant species of columnaris-causing bacteria impacting the Channel Catfish industry in the southeastern United States.

OBJECTIVE: Columnaris disease is a leading cause of disease-related losses in the catfish industry of the southeastern United States. The term "columnaris-causing bacteria" (CCB) has been coined in reference to the four described species that cause columnaris disease: Flavobacterium columnare, F. covae, F. davisii, and F. oreochromis. Historically, F. columnare, F. covae, and F. davisii have been isolated from columnaris disease cases in the catfish industry; however, there is a lack of knowledge of which CCB species are most prevalent in farm-raised catfish. The current research objectives were to (1) sample columnaris disease cases from the U.S. catfish industry and identify the species of CCB involved and (2) determine the virulence of the four CCB species in Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus in controlled laboratory challenges. METHODS: Bacterial isolates or swabs of external lesions from catfish were collected from 259 columnaris disease cases in Mississippi and Alabama during 2015-2019. The DNA extracted from the samples was analyzed using a CCB-specific multiplex polymerase chain reaction to identify the CCB present in each diagnostic case. Channel Catfish were challenged by immersion with isolates belonging to each CCB species to determine virulence at ~28°C and 20°C. RESULT: Flavobacterium covae was identified as the predominant CCB species impacting the U.S. catfish industry, as it was present in 94.2% (n = 244) of diagnostic case submissions. Challenge experiments demonstrated that F. covae and F. oreochromis were highly virulent to Channel Catfish, with most isolates resulting in near 100% mortality. In contrast, F. columnare and F. davisii were less virulent, with most isolates resulting in less than 40% mortality. CONCLUSION: Collectively, these results demonstrate that F. covae is the predominant CCB in the U.S. catfish industry, and research aimed at developing new control and prevention strategies should target this bacterial species. The methods described herein can be used to continue monitoring the prevalence of CCB in the catfish industry and can be easily applied to other industries to identify which Flavobacterium species have the greatest impact.

Species-specific in situ hybridization confirms arrested development of Henneguya ictaluri in hybrid catfish (Channel Catfish × Blue Catfish) under experimental conditions, with notes on mixed-species infections in clinical cases of proliferative gill disease from Mississippi catfish aquaculture.

OBJECTIVE: Proliferative gill disease (PGD) in Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus and hybrid catfish (Channel Catfish × Blue Catfish I. furcatus) is attributed to the myxozoan Henneguya ictaluri. Despite evidence of decreased H. ictaluri transmission and impaired parasite development in hybrid catfish, PGD still occurs in hybrid production systems. Previous metagenomic assessments of clinical PGD cases revealed numerous myxozoans within affected gill tissues in addition to H. ictaluri. The objective of this study was to investigate the development and pathologic contributions of H. ictaluri and other myxozoans in naturally and experimentally induced PGD. METHODS: Henneguya species-specific in situ hybridization (ISH) assays were developed using RNAscope technology. Natural infections were sourced from diagnostic case submissions in 2019. Experimental challenges involved Channel Catfish and hybrid catfish exposed to pond water from an active PGD outbreak, and the fish were sampled at 1, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 weeks postchallenge. RESULT: Nine unique ISH probes were designed, targeting a diagnostic variable region of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene of select myxozoan taxa identified in clinical PGD cases. Partial validation from pure H. ictaluri, H. adiposa, H. postexilis, and H. exilis infections illustrated species-specific labeling and no cross-reactivity between different myxozoan species or the catfish hosts. After experimental challenge, mature plasmodia of H. ictaluri and H. postexilis formed in Channel Catfish but were not observed in hybrids, suggesting impaired or delayed sporogenesis in the hybridized host. These investigations also confirmed the presence of mixed infections in clinical PGD cases. CONCLUSION: Although H. ictaluri appears to be the primary cause of PGD, presporogonic stages of other myxozoans were also present, which may contribute to disease pathology and exacerbate respiratory compromise by further altering normal gill morphology. This work provides molecular confirmation and more resolute developmental timelines of H. ictaluri and H. postexilis in Channel Catfish and supports previous research indicating impaired or precluded H. ictaluri sporogony in hybrid catfish.

MYXOZOAN COMMUNITY COMPOSITION AND DIVERSITY IN CLINICAL CASES OF PROLIFERATIVE GILL DISEASE IN MISSISSIPPI CATFISH AQUACULTURE.

An abundance of morphologically variable Henneguya species complicates the understanding of disease relationships between ictalurid catfish and myxozoan (Phylum: Cnidaria) parasites on North American aquaculture operations. Henneguya ictaluri, the cause of proliferative gill disease (PGD) in channel and hybrid catfish, is arguably the most important parasite of commercial catfish aquaculture in the southeastern United States. While research indicates arrested development and limited sporogenesis of H. ictaluri in channel (Ictalurus punctatus) × blue (Ictalurus furcatus) hybrid catfish, incidents of PGD persist in hybrid production systems. This work investigated the influence of fish host on myxozoan community composition and diversity within naturally infected gill tissues from diagnostic case submissions to the Aquatic Research and Diagnostic Laboratory in Stoneville, Mississippi, from 2017 to 2019. Gills collected from farm-raised catfish with clinical PGD were subjected to metagenomic amplicon sequencing of the myxozoan 18S SSU rDNA gene diagnostic variable region 3 (DVR3). Myxozoan community composition significantly differed between channel and hybrid catfish PGD cases, with channel catfish having more diverse community structures. Channel catfish gills had a greater relative abundance of H. ictaluri in 2017 and 2019, while no differences were observed in 2018. Importantly, H. ictaluri was present in all channel and hybrid catfish PGD cases across all years; however, H. ictaluri was not the most abundant myxozoan in almost half the cases examined, suggesting other myxozoan species may also contribute to PGD pathology. The detection of numerous known and unclassified myxozoan sequences in addition to H. ictaluri provides evidence PGD may involve mixed species infections. Furthermore, the presence of numerous unclassified myxozoan sequences in gill samples from clinical PGD cases indicates the number of described species from U.S. farm-raised catfish vastly underestimates the true myxozoan diversity present within the varied pond microcosms associated with catfish aquaculture.

EXPERIMENTAL ELUCIDATION OF THE LIFE CYCLE OF DREPANOCEPHALUS SPATHANS (DIGENEA: ECHINOSTOMATIDAE) WITH NOTES ON THE MORPHOLOGICAL PLASTICITY OF D. SPATHANS IN THE UNITED STATES.

The echinostomatid Drepanocephalus spathans (syn. Drepanocephalus auritus) parasitizes the double-crested cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus. In North America, the marsh rams-horn snail Planorbella trivolvis and ghost rams-horn snail Biomphalaria havanensis serve as snail intermediate hosts, both of which inhabit catfish aquaculture ponds in the southeastern United States. Studies have demonstrated D. spathans exposure can be lethal to juvenile channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Two studies were undertaken to elucidate the life cycle of D. spathans to establish a developmental time line. In both studies, D. spathans cercariae collected from naturally infected P. trivolvis individuals were used to infect channel catfish fingerlings, which were then fed to double-crested cormorants (DCCOs) that had been pharmaceutically dewormed. In study 1, laboratory-reared P. trivolvis and B. havanensis individuals were placed in aviary ponds with experimentally infected DCCO and examined bi-weekly for release of cercariae. Trematode eggs were observed in the feces of exposed birds 3 days post-infection. Birds were sacrificed 18 days post-exposure (dpe), and gravid adults morphologically and molecularly consistent with D. spathans were recovered. Snails from the aviary pond were observed shedding D. spathans cercariae 18-54 dpe. In study 2, trematode eggs were observed in the feces of exposed DCCOs beginning 8 dpe. Once eggs were observed, birds were allowed to defecate into clean tanks containing naïve laboratory-reared P. trivolvis individuals. Additionally, eggs from experimental DCCO feces were recovered by sedimentation and placed in an aquarium housing laboratory-reared P. trivolvis individuals. Birds in study 2 were sacrificed after 60 days, and gravid D. spathans specimens were recovered. Snails from the experimental DCCO tanks shed D. spathans cercariae 89-97 dpe. Lastly, trematode eggs were isolated and observed for the hatching of miracidia, which emerged on average after 16 days at ambient temperatures. No D. spathans adults were observed in control birds fed non-parasitized fish. This is the first experimental confirmation of the D. spathans life cycle, resolving previously unknown developmental time lines. In addition, the effects of fixation on adult trematode morphology were assessed, clarifying reports of pronounced morphological plasticity for D. spathans.

New data on Henneguya postexilis Minchew, 1977, a parasite of channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus, with notes on resolution of molecular markers for myxozoan phylogeny.

Previous morphological and histological data are supplemented with molecular and ultrastructural data for a Henneguya sp. isolated from farm-raised channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus in Mississippi, USA. Myxospores were cryptic, encapsulated within a thin layer of epithelium in the gill lamellae with spore measurements consistent with the original description of Henneguya postexilis Minchew, 1977. Myxospores were 42.7-49.1 µm in total length with spore bodies 12.1-17.2 × 3.6-4.8 × 2.9-3 µm. Polar capsules were of unequal length, with the longer capsule being 4.4-6.7 × 1.1-1.6 µm and the shorter capsule being 4.4-6.4 × 1.1-1.6 µm. Polar tubules had 6-8 turns. Caudal processes were 25.7-38.1 µm in length. Spores were encapsulated in a thin layer of epithelium in the gill lamellae. Molecular data from the most commonly used markers for myxozoan identification and phylogeny, partial 18S small subunit ribosomal gene (SSU), partial 28S large subunit ribosomal gene (LSU), and elongation factor 2 (EF2) were generated for H. postexilis. Additionally, novel data for LSU and EF2 were generated for archived myxozoan specimens from farm-raised catfish (H. mississippiensis, H. ictaluri, H. exilis, H. adiposa, H. sutherlandi, H. bulbosus, Unicauda fimbrethilae), as well as archived specimens from wild fish (H. laseeae [from Pylodictis olivaris], Hennegoides flockae [from Aphredoderus sayanus], Myxobolus cloutmani [from Cycleptus elongatus]. These include the first EF2 sequence data for the genera Hennegoides and Unicauda. Phylogenetic analyses using these data placed H. postexilis in well supported clades with other ictalurid-infecting Henneguya species. Phylogenetic signal assessments on these analyses suggest that while SSU provided the greatest phylogenetic signal, LSU yielded comparable signal, supporting previous work implying this region may be underutilised in reconstructing myxobolid phylogenies.

A Review of Bacterial Co-Infections in Farmed Catfish: Components, Diagnostics, and Treatment Directions.

Catfish production is a major aquaculture industry in the United States and is the largest sector of food fish production. As producers aim to optimize production yields, diseases caused by bacterial pathogens are responsible for high pond mortality rates and economic losses. The major bacterial pathogens responsible are Edwardsiella ictaluri, Aeromonas spp., and Flavobacterium columnare. Given the outdoor pond culture environments and ubiquitous nature of these aquatic pathogens, there have been many reports of co-infective bacterial infections within this aquaculture sector. Co-infections may be responsible for altering disease infection mechanics, increasing mortality rates, and creating difficulties for disease management plans. Furthermore, proper diagnoses of primary and secondary pathogens are essential in ensuring the correct treatment approaches for antimicrobials and chemical applications. A thorough understanding of the interactions and infectivity dynamics for these warm water bacterial pathogens will allow for the adoption of new prevention and control methods, particularly in vaccine development. This review aims to provide an overview of co-infective pathogens in catfish culture and present diagnostic case data from Mississippi and Alabama to define prevalence for these multiple-species infections better.

Pathologic Changes Associated With Respiratory Compromise And Morbidity Due To Massive Interlamellar Henneguya Exilis Infection In Channel × Blue Hybrid Catfish.

There are multiple Henneguya spp. (Myxozoa: Myxobolidae) endemic to North American catfish aquaculture that affect the gills of channel catfish and their hybrids. These parasites are morphologically similar, and confusion exists regarding the predilection sites and pathologic changes associated with different species. In the spring of 2018, channel (Ictalurus punctatus) female × blue (Ictalurus furcatus) male hybrid catfish from 2 separate commercial operations in northwest Mississippi were submitted for diagnostic assessment in response to observed morbidity and reduced feeding activity. Fish presented with unusually heavy infections of Henneguya spp. plasmodia in the gills. The majority of gill filaments contained widespread, pinpoint, raised, white nodules corresponding microscopically to myxospore-filled plasmodia that obliterated interlamellar spaces. The bipolar myxospores were consistent with Henneguya spp. described from North American ictalurids, possessing slender fusiform spore bodies and elongate bifurcate caudal processes. Associated microscopic lesions included lamellar fusion, epithelial hyperplasia, infrequent, localized, granulomatous branchitis, and rare cartilage lysis, suggesting impaired gill function. Mature plasmodia were excised by laser capture microdissection from ethanol-fixed, hematoxylin and eosin-stained histologic sections for molecular analysis. Fragments (700 bp) of a highly variable region of the 18S rRNA gene, diagnostic for the Myxobolidae, were 100% similar at the nucleotide level to Henneguya exilis. Although mortality was negligible, fish in the affected ponds exhibited signs of respiratory distress similar to proliferative gill disease (PGD) caused by Henneguya ictaluri in channel and hybrid catfish. However, gross and microscopic lesions differed markedly from PGD, known colloquially as "hamburger gill disease." While H. exilis has been reported from channel catfish, it is not typically associated with morbidity and mortality and has not previously been reported from channel × blue catfish hybrids. This work characterizes lesions and confirms the etiology of gill disease induced by the myxozoan H. exilis. In addition to PGD and other non-parasitic conditions, massive interlamellar H. exilis infection should be a differential consideration in pond-raised channel and hybrid catfish experiencing signs of respiratory distress.

Arrested Development of Henneguya ictaluri (Cnidaria: Myxobolidae) in ♀ Channel Catfish × â™‚ Blue Catfish Hybrids.

Henneguya ictaluri is the etiologic agent of proliferative gill disease (PGD) in farm-raised Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus and hybrid catfish in the southeastern United States, and significant annual losses are attributed to this disease. Research suggests that H. ictaluri infection dynamics in Blue Catfish I. furcatus and hybrid catfish (Channel Catfish × Blue Catfish) differ from those in Channel Catfish. Two separate infectivity trials were conducted to investigate H. ictaluri development in Channel Catfish, Blue Catfish, and their hybrids. On two separate occasions with two different year-classes, fish were exposed to pond water containing H. ictaluri actinospores and sampled weekly for 12 weeks (trial 1) or 14 weeks (trial 2). In trial 1, the presence of H. ictaluri was evaluated histologically and by quantitative PCR of fish tissues, including gills, blood, anterior kidney, brain, heart, liver, posterior kidney, spleen, and stomach. Henneguya ictaluri DNA was detected in significantly higher concentrations throughout multiple organ systems in the Channel Catfish compared to the hybrid catfish and Blue Catfish, with the gills having higher quantities. Myxospores were observed in Channel Catfish gill tissue at 8 weeks postexposure. No myxospores were observed in Blue Catfish or hybrid catfish. The second trial focused on gills only and yielded similar results, with Channel Catfish having significantly greater H. ictaluri DNA quantities than hybrids or Blue Catfish across all time points. Myxospores were observed in Channel Catfish beginning at 6 weeks postexposure and were found in 36% (58/162) of Channel Catfish sampled for molecular and histological analysis during weeks 6-14. Myxospores in hybrid catfish were sparse, with single pseudocysts observed in two hybrid catfish (1.2%) at 14 weeks postexposure. These results imply arrested development of H. ictaluri in hybrid catfish. As such, culture of hybrid catfish may be an effective management strategy to minimize the burden of PGD.

Comparative Phenotypic and Genotypic Analysis of Edwardsiella Isolates from Different Hosts and Geographic Origins, with Emphasis on Isolates Formerly Classified as E. tarda, and Evaluation of Diagnostic Methods.

Edwardsiella spp. are responsible for significant losses in important wild and cultured fish species worldwide. Recent phylogenomic investigations have determined that bacteria historically classified as Edwardsiella tarda actually represent three genetically distinct yet phenotypically ambiguous taxa with various degrees of pathogenicity in different hosts. Previous recognition of these taxa was hampered by the lack of a distinguishing phenotypic character. Commercial test panel configurations are relatively constant over time, and as new species are defined, appropriate discriminatory tests may not be present in current test panel arrangements. While phenobiochemical tests fail to discriminate between these taxa, data presented here revealed discriminatory peaks for each Edwardsiella species using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) methodology, suggesting that MALDI-TOF can offer rapid, reliable identification in line with current systematic classifications. Furthermore, a multiplex PCR assay was validated for rapid molecular differentiation of the Edwardsiella spp. affecting fish. Moreover, the limitations of relying on partial 16S rRNA for discrimination of Edwardsiella spp. and advantages of employing alternative single-copy genes gyrB and sodB for molecular identification and classification of Edwardsiella were demonstrated. Last, sodB sequencing confirmed that isolates previously defined as typical motile fish-pathogenic E. tarda are synonymous with Edwardsiella piscicida, while atypical nonmotile fish-pathogenic E. tarda isolates are equivalent to Edwardsiella anguillarum Fish-nonpathogenic E. tarda isolates are consistent with E. tarda as it is currently defined. These analyses help deconvolute the scientific literature regarding these organisms and provide baseline information to better facilitate proper taxonomic assignment and minimize erroneous identifications of Edwardsiella isolates in clinical and research settings.

Characterization of the Life Cycle of a Fish Eye Fluke, Austrodiplostomum ostrowskiae (Digenea: Diplostomidae), with Notes on Two Other Diplostomids Infecting Biomphalaria havanensis (Mollusca: Planorbidae) from Catfish Aquaculture Ponds in Mississippi, USA.

Ocular diplostomiasis is caused by trematode species in the family Diplostomidae, specifically those in the genera Austrodiplostomum, Diplostomum, and Tylodelphys. Diplostomid trematodes are globally distributed parasites of fish. Heavy infections of diplostomids that parasitize the eyes of fish can result in acute mortality while chronic infections are often characterized by impaired vision or blindness. In the southeastern United States, commercial catfish production is threatened by piscivorous birds and the many trematode species that parasitize them. The life cycles typically involve a piscivorous avian definitive host, a mollusk first intermediate host, and a fish second intermediate host. A survey of parasites infecting the snail host Biomphalaria havanensis (= B. obstructa ) in catfish production ponds was undertaken. Snails were collected from 2 separate ponds during the summer of 2014 and observed for the release of trematode cercariae. A total of 1,740 snails were collected. Three distinct longifurcate pharyngeate cercariae were observed and these cercariae were characterized morphologically and molecularly. Sequencing of ∼4,200 base pairs (bp) of the nuclear ribosomal genes and ∼450 bp of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase gene revealed 3 genetically distinct species. One morphotype shared 99-100% sequence identity with metacercariae from the aqueous and vitreous humors of gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum and channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus as well as an adult trematode, Austrodiplostomum ostrowskiae, a parasite of the double-crested cormorant Nannopterum auritus. The remaining 2 cercariae morphotypes shared 99-100% sequence identity with an unidentified Tylodelphys sp. and Austrodiplostomum sp. metacercaria from the brain and eyes of several freshwater fish. Herein we molecularly link the cercaria, metacercaria, and adult stage of the life cycle of A. ostrowskiae, identifying the snail host for this parasite, in addition to providing notes on 2 cercariae representing 2 other diplostomids.

Oral Vaccination of Channel Catfish against Enteric Septicemia of Catfish Using a Live Attenuated Edwardsiella ictaluri Isolate.

Enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC), caused by Edwardsiella ictaluri, is the most problematic bacterial disease affecting catfish aquaculture in the southeastern United States. Efforts to develop an effective ESC vaccine have had limited industrial success. In commercial settings, ESC vaccines are typically administered by immersion when fry are transferred from the hatchery to rearing ponds. While this approach is a practical method of mass delivery, this strategy administers vaccines to very young fish, which lack a fully developed immune system. To circumvent this limitation, an oral vaccination strategy was evaluated as a means of immunizing catfish at the fingerling stage of production, when fish possess a more complete immune arsenal. A virulent E. ictaluri isolate (S97-773) was attenuated by successive passage on media containing increasing concentrations of rifamycin. In laboratory trials, cultured vaccine was diluted and mixed with feed (100 mL diluted vaccine/454 g feed). This mixture was then fed to Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus fingerlings. Two separate dilutions of cultured vaccine (1:10 and 1:100) were used to create the vaccine-feed mixture, equating to estimated doses of 5 × 107 and 5 × 106 CFU/g of feed, respectively. After 30 d, catfish were exposed by immersion (1 × 106 CFU/mL) to the virulent parental strain of E. ictaluri. The target dose (1:100 dilution, ∼5 × 106 CFU/g of feed) offered exceptional protection (relative percent survival = 82.6-100%). In addition, negligible deaths occurred in fish vaccinated at 10 times the target dose (1:10 dilution, ∼5 × 107 CFU/g of feed). In pond trials, antibody production increased 18-fold in orally vaccinated fish. When compared with nonvaccinated controls, vaccination significantly improved survival, feed fed, feed conversion, biomass produced, and total harvest. This research demonstrates Channel Catfish can be successfully immunized in a commercial setting against E. ictaluri with a single dose of an orally delivered, live attenuated, E. ictaluri vaccine.

Small subunit ribosomal RNA sequence links the myxospore stage of Henneguya mississippiensis n. sp. from channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus to an actinospore released by the benthic oligochaete Dero digitata.

There are more than 200 species of Henneguya described from fish. Of these, only three life cycles have been determined, identifying the actinospore and myxospore stages from their respective hosts. Two of these life cycles involve the channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and the freshwater oligochaete Dero digitata. Herein, we molecularly confirm the life cycle of a previously undescribed Henneguya sp. by matching 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequence of the myxospore stage from channel catfish with the previously described actinospore stage (Aurantiactinomyxon mississippiensis) from D. digitata. Gill tissue from naturally infected channel catfish contained pseudocysts restricted to the apical end of the primary lamellae. Myxospores were morphologically consistent with Henneguya spp. from ictalurid fishes in North America. The spores measured 48.8 ± 4.8 µm (range = 40.7-61.6 µm) in total spore length. The lanceolate spore body was 17.1 ± 1.0 µm (14.4-19.3 µm) in length and 5.0 ± 0.3 µm (4.5-5.5 µm) in width. The two polar capsules were 6.2 ± 0.4 µm (5.8-7.0 µm) long and 5.0 ± 0.3 µm (4.5-5.5 µm) wide. The polar capsule contained eight to nine coils in the polar filament. The two caudal processes were of equal length, measuring 31.0 ± 4.1 µm (22.9-40.6 µm). The 1980-bp 18S rRNA gene sequence obtained from two excised cysts shared 99.4% similarity (100% coverage) to the published sequence of A. mississippiensis, an actinospore previously described from D. digitata. The sequence similarity between the myxospore from channel catfish and actinospore from D. digitata suggests that they are conspecific, representing alternate life stages of Henneguya mississippiensis n. sp.

Nonlesions, misdiagnoses, missed diagnoses, and other interpretive challenges in fish histopathology studies: a guide for investigators, authors, reviewers, and readers.

Differentiating salient histopathologic changes from normal anatomic features or tissue artifacts can be decidedly challenging, especially for the novice fish pathologist. As a consequence, findings of questionable accuracy may be reported inadvertently, and the potential negative impacts of publishing inaccurate histopathologic interpretations are not always fully appreciated. The objectives of this article are to illustrate a number of specific morphologic findings in commonly examined fish tissues (e.g., gills, liver, kidney, and gonads) that are frequently either misdiagnosed or underdiagnosed, and to address related issues involving the interpretation of histopathologic data. To enhance the utility of this article as a guide, photomicrographs of normal and abnormal specimens are presented. General recommendations for generating and publishing results from histopathology studies are additionally provided. It is hoped that the furnished information will be a useful resource for manuscript generation, by helping authors, reviewers, and readers to critically assess fish histopathologic data.

18S rRNA gene sequencing identifies a novel species of Henneguya parasitizing the gills of the channel catfish (Ictaluridae).

In the southeastern USA, the channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus is a host to at least eight different species of myxozoan parasites belonging to the genus Henneguya, four of which have been characterized molecularly using sequencing of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene. However, only two of these have confirmed life cycles that involve the oligochaete Dero digitata as the definitive host. During a health screening of farm-raised channel catfish, several fish presented with deformed primary lamellae. Lamellae harbored large, nodular, white pseudocysts 1.25 mm in diameter, and upon rupturing, these pseudocysts released Henneguya myxospores, with a typical lanceolate-shaped spore body, measuring 17.1 ± 1.0 µm (mean ± SD; range = 15.0-19.3 µm) in length and 4.8 ± 0.4 µm (3.7-5.6 µm) in width. Pyriform-shaped polar capsules were 5.8 ± 0.3 µm in length (5.1-6.4 µm) and 1.7 ± 0.1 µm (1.4-1.9 µm) in width. The two caudal processes were 40.0 ± 5.1 µm in length (29.5-50.0 µm) with a spore length of 57.2 ± 4.7 (46.8-66.8 µm). The contiguous SSU rRNA gene sequence obtained from myxospores of five excised cysts did not match any Henneguya sp. in GenBank. The greatest sequence homology (91% over 1,900 bp) was with Henneguya pellis, associated with blister-like lesions on the skin of blue catfish Ictalurus furcatus. Based on the unique combination of pseudocyst and myxospore morphology, tissue location, host, and SSU rRNA gene sequence data, we report this isolate to be a previously unreported species, Henneguya bulbosus sp. nov.

Chronic pathology and longevity of Drepanocephalus spathans infections in juvenile Channel Catfish.

Drepanocephalus spathans (Digenea: Echinostomatidae) is a common parasite of the double-crested cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus. The cercariae of D. spathans have been shown infective to juvenile Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus. The developing metacercariae concentrate in the cranial regions, often occluding blood vessels at the base of the branchial arch, occasionally resulting in death. The purpose of this study was to determine how long metacercariae of D. spathans persist in experimentally challenged Channel Catfish. Two separate infectivity trials were conducted. In both trials, metacercariae persisted at least 49 d postinfection, although prevalence and intensity of infection decreased over time. In the first trial, juvenile catfish (1-3 g) were exposed over three consecutive days to 100, 100, and 80 cercariae/fish/d, respectively. Fish were sampled 7 d after the final exposure, and metacercariae were observed in 83.3% (five of six) of challenged fish. At 21 d postexposure, metacercariae were present in only 50% of exposed fish (three of six). No metacercaria were observed in fish sampled at 35 d, however, metacercariae were present in one of six (16.7%) fish sampled 49 and 70 d postexposure, respectively. A second challenge consisted of a 24-h pooled exposure of 500 cercariae per fish. Again, metacercariae were present in most (six of seven; 85.7%) fish at 7 d postexposure. At 21 d postexposure, metacercariae were only evident in one of seven (14.3%) sampled fish. No metacercariae were present in any fish at 35 d postchallenge, yet one of seven (14.3%) fish was positive at 49 d postchallenge. The second study was terminated at 63 d postchallenge, as all fish sampled (n = 14) were negative for metacercariae. These data suggest that cercariae of D. spathans are infective to juvenile Channel Catfish, although the infection appears short lived as metacercariae rarely persisted longer than 2 months.

Molecular and morphological characterization of myxozoan actinospore types from a commercial catfish pond in the Mississippi delta.

The actinospore diversity of infected Dero digitata was surveyed (May 2011) from a channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) production pond in the Mississippi Delta region for the elucidation of unknown myxozoan life cycles. At present, only 2 myxozoan life cycles have been molecularly confirmed in channel catfish, linking the actinospore stage from an aquatic oligochaete (D. digitata ) and the myxospore stage from the catfish. In this study D. digitata (n = 2,592) were isolated from oligochaetes collected from the bottom sediment of a channel catfish production pond. After 1 wk of daily observation, a total of 6 genetically different actinospore types were observed. The collective groups were classified as 2 aurantiactinomyxons, 2 helioactinomyxons, 1 raabeia, and 1 triactinomyxon. Overall prevalence of myxozoan infections in the isolated oligochaetes was 4.4%. Actinospores were photographed and measured for morphological characterization. Four previously undescribed actinospore types were identified and characterized molecularly and morphologically. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the raabeia and one of the helioactinomyxon (type 1) actinospores were closely related to the group of myxozoans known to parasitize ictalurids in North America. To date, no myxospores have been linked to the newly sequenced actinospores reported in this survey. The morphological and molecular data generated from this study will assist in the identification of myxospore counterparts for these actinospore stages and aid in the elucidation of unknown myxozoan life cycles in closed production systems.

Comparative susceptibility of Channel Catfish, Blue Catfish, and their hybrid cross to experimental challenge with Bolbophorus damnificus (Digenea: Bolbophoridae) cercariae.

The digenetic trematode Bolbophorus damnificus has been implicated in significant losses in catfish aquaculture since the late 1990s. The complex life cycle sequentially involves the American white pelican Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, the marsh rams horn snail Planorbella trivolvis, and Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Research supports anecdotal reports from the industry, suggesting that the hybrid of Channel Catfish×Blue Catfish I. furcatus is less susceptible to disease agents that have been historically prohibitive to Channel Catfish production, namely the gram-negative bacteria Edwardsiella ictaluri and Flavobacterium columnare, as well as the myxozoan parasite Henneguya ictaluri. This current research compared the susceptibility of Channel Catfish, Blue Catfish, and their hybrid cross to an experimental challenge by B. damnificus. Fish were exposed to 0, 100, 200, and 400 B. damnificus cercariae per fish, and the numbers of metacercariae per fish were determined 14 d postchallenge. Metacercariae were recovered from all challenged fish. There were no significant differences among fish groups challenged with the same dose, suggesting Channel and Blue Catfish and their hybrid are comparably susceptible to B. damnificus infection. As such, it is recommended that producers raising hybrid catfish remain diligent in controlling populations of the snail intermediate host to prevent production losses attributed to B. damnificus, especially when loafing pelicans have been observed at the aquaculture operation.

Lactococcosis in Silver Carp.

An adult Silver Carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix with a focally extensive skin lesion near the caudal peduncle and mild iridial hemorrhage was submitted to the Aquatic Research and Diagnostic Laboratory (ARDL) in Stoneville, Mississippi, as part of a fish kill investigation. Touch impressions of this musculoskeletal lesion revealed small cocci (∼1 µm) in pairs or chains within an inflammatory milieu. A pure Gram-positive cocci isolate was obtained from the brain, while cultures of the kidney and muscle yielded multiple bacterial colony types, including the Gram-positive cocci seen in the brain. This brain isolate was characterized biochemically and identified as Lactococcus spp. Analysis of the near complete 16S small subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU rDNA) and DNA gyrase subunit B (gyrB) gene sequences revealed the bacterium to be L. lactis subsp. lactis (SSU rDNA: 100% identity, 1,372/1,372 bp; gyrB: 99.7% identity, 1,779/1,785 bp). Comparatively, at the gyrB locus the case isolate shared less than 90% similarity to L. lactis subsp. cremoris (1,599/1,781 bp) and less than 80% homology to L. garvieae (1409/1775 bp). Histopathological examination confirmed a severe meningoencephalitis, a moderate mononuclear myositis, and a mild interstitial nephritis. We believe this represents the first report of a natural infection by L. lactis subsp. lactis in Silver Carp.

Edwardsiella piscicida identified in the Southeastern USA by gyrB sequence, species-specific and repetitive sequence-mediated PCR.

A new Edwardsiella taxon was recently described from fishes of Europe and Asia. Phenotypically similar to E. tarda, extensive genetic and phenotypic characterization determined this new strain does not belong to any established Edwardsiella taxa, leading to the adoption of a new taxon, E. piscicida. Concurrent research in the USA also identified 2 genetically distinct taxa within the group of organisms traditionally classified as E. tarda. Comparisons of gyrB sequences between US isolates and E. piscicida from Europe and Asia identified several US isolates with >99.6% similarity to the gyrB sequence of the E. piscicida type strain (ET883) but <87% similarity to the E. tarda type strain (ATCC #15947). A discriminatory PCR was developed for the identification of E. tarda and 2 genetic variants of E. piscicida (E. piscicida and E. piscicida-like species). Using these PCR assays, a survey was conducted of 44 archived bacterial specimens from disease case submissions to the Aquatic Research and Diagnostic Laboratory (Stoneville, MS, USA) between 2007 and 2012. All 44 isolates, originally identified phenotypically and biochemically as E. tarda, were identified as E. piscicida by PCR. Repetitive sequence-mediated PCR (rep-PCR) analysis of these archived specimens suggests they are largely homogenous, similar to what has been observed for E. ictaluri. The gyrB sequence data, coupled with the E. piscicida specific-PCR and rep-PCR data, confirms that E. piscicida has been isolated from fish disease cases in the southeastern USA. Moreover, our survey data suggests E. piscicida may be more prevalent in catfish aquaculture than E. tarda.

Iron status of channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus affected by channel catfish anemia and response to parenteral iron.

Originally reported in 1983, channel catfish anemia (CCA), also 'white lip' or 'no blood,' is a major idiopathic disease affecting commercial production in the Mississippi Delta region of the USA. Affected individuals are characterized by lethargy, anorexia, extreme pallor, and packed cell volumes often below 5%, but a definitive cause for CCA remains elusive. Records from the National Warmwater Aquaculture Center (NWAC) reveal that, on average, CCA accounted for 4.7% of case submissions from 1994 to 2012. Known infectious agents, parasites, and perturbations in commonly measured water quality variables have been largely excluded, and research has focused on potential feed-related etiologies, particularly folic acid deficiency. No natural or anthropogenic contaminants have been found in feeds, and no associations have been made to any particular feed brand or formulation, or to the age or condition of the feed itself. Contrary to reports indicating a short clinical course, NWAC records indicate an insidious condition where certain ponds have contained fish diagnosed with CCA for up to 4 consecutive years and individual outbreaks have persisted for at least 5 mo. Investigation into the iron status of CCA-affected fish revealed values consistent with iron deficiency anemia, including low-packed cell volume (mean ± SE, 5.6 ± 1.0 vs. 24.8 ± 2.4%), serum iron (35.2 ± 3.5 vs. 104.4 ± 18.5 µg dl-1), liver iron (12.2 ± 2.6 vs. 23.3 ± 4.6 µg g-1), and percent transferrin saturation (14.5 ± 2.7 vs. 26.9 ± 3.1%) in anemic and healthy controls, respectively. Administration of parenteral iron produced complete recovery and returned iron indices to within the ranges of normal controls. Despite these findings, factors predisposing a state of hypoferremia remain unknown.