Central and Enteric Neuroprotective Effects by Eucommia ulmoides Extracts on Neurodegeneration in Rotenone-induced Parkinsonian Mouse.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of both the central and peripheral / enteric nervous systems. Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are associated with the pathogenesis of PD, suggesting that anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory compounds could be neuroprotective agents for PD. Eucommia ulmoides (EU) is a traditional herbal medicine which exerts neuroprotective effects by anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties. Our previous study showed that treatment with chlorogenic acid, a component of EU, protected against neurodegeneration in the central and enteric nervous systems in a PD model. In this study, we examined the effects of EU extract (EUE) administration on dopaminergic neurodegeneration, glial response and α-synuclein expression in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), and intestinal enteric neurodegeneration in low-dose rotenone-induced PD model mice. Daily oral administration of EUE ameliorated dopaminergic neurodegeneration and α-synuclein accumulation in the SNpc. EUE treatment inhibited rotenone-induced decreases in the number of total astrocytes and in those expressing the antioxidant molecule metallothionein. EUE also prevented rotenone-induced microglial activation. Furthermore, EUE treatment exerted protective effects against intestinal neuronal loss in the PD model. These results suggest that EU exerts neuroprotective effects in the central and enteric nervous systems of rotenone-induced parkinsonism mice, in part by glial modification.

Neuroprotective Effects of Anti-high Mobility Group Box-1 Monoclonal Antibody Against Methamphetamine-Induced Dopaminergic Neurotoxicity.

High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) is a ubiquitous non-histone nuclear protein that plays a key role as a transcriptional activator, with its extracellular release provoking inflammation. Inflammatory responses are essential in methamphetamine (METH)-induced acute dopaminergic neurotoxicity. In the present study, we examined the effects of neutralizing anti-HMGB1 monoclonal antibody (mAb) on METH-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity in mice. BALB/c mice received a single intravenous administration of anti-HMGB1 mAb prior to intraperitoneal injections of METH (4 mg/kg × 2, at 2-h intervals). METH injections induced hyperthermia, an increase in plasma HMGB1 concentration, degeneration of dopaminergic nerve terminals, accumulation of microglia, and extracellular release of neuronal HMGB1 in the striatum. These METH-induced changes were significantly inhibited by intravenous administration of anti-HMGB1 mAb. In contrast, blood-brain barrier disruption occurred by METH injections was not suppressed. Our findings demonstrated the neuroprotective effects of anti-HMGB1 mAb against METH-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity, suggesting that HMGB1 could play an initially important role in METH toxicity.

Mirtazapine exerts astrocyte-mediated dopaminergic neuroprotection.

Mirtazapine, a noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant (NaSSA), is known to activate serotonin (5-HT) 1A receptor. Our recent study demonstrated that stimulation of astrocytic 5-HT1A receptors promoted astrocyte proliferation and upregulated antioxidative property in astrocytes to protect dopaminergic neurons against oxidative stress. Here, we evaluated the neuroprotective effects of mirtazapine against dopaminergic neurodegeneration in models of Parkinson's disease (PD). Mirtazapine administration attenuated the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and increased the expression of the antioxidative molecule metallothionein (MT) in the striatal astrocytes of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-injected parkinsonian mice via 5-HT1A receptors. Mirtazapine protected dopaminergic neurons against 6-OHDA-induced neurotoxicity in mesencephalic neuron and striatal astrocyte cocultures, but not in enriched neuronal cultures. Mirtazapine-treated neuron-conditioned medium (Mir-NCM) induced astrocyte proliferation and upregulated MT expression via 5-HT1A receptors on astrocytes. Furthermore, treatment with medium from Mir-NCM-treated astrocytes protected dopaminergic neurons against 6-OHDA neurotoxicity, and these effects were attenuated by treatment with a MT-1/2-specific antibody or 5-HT1A antagonist. Our study suggests that mirtazapine could be an effective disease-modifying drug for PD and highlights that astrocytic 5-HT1A receptors may be a novel target for the treatment of PD.

Development of an appropriate simple suspension method for valganciclovir medication.

BACKGROUND: Valganciclovir (VGC) is essential for preventing cytomegalovirus infections after transplants in adult and pediatric patients. In pediatric patients, VGC tablets have to be pulverized so that they can be delivered via nasogastric tubes. The "simple suspension method" is usually used to suspend tablets in hot water in Japan. However, the optimal suspension conditions and metering methods for preparing VGC suspensions using the simple suspension method are unclear. The purpose of this study was to clarify these issues. METHODS: VGC tablets were suspended in water (initial water temperature: 25 °C or 55 °C) using the simple suspension method. The residual rate of VGC after it had been suspended in hot water was determined using HPLC. In addition, the suspended solution was passed through 6, 8, and 12 Fr. gavage tubes. The VGC concentrations of suspensions produced using different preparation methods were also determined using HPLC. RESULTS: Cracking the surfaces of VGC tablets and suspending them in water at an initial temperature of 55 °C was effective at dissolving the tablets. The VGC concentration of the suspension remained stable for at least 80 min. Furthermore, the VGC concentration remained stable for 48 h during cold dark storage. Cracking the surfaces of VGC tablets could be a more effective metering method than preparing powder from VGC tablets. In addition, little VGC remained in 6, 8, or 12 Fr. gavage tubes after VGC solution was passed through them. CONCLUSION: The amount of VGC should be measured carefully when preparing VGC solutions using the simple suspension method.

Chronic Systemic Exposure to Low-Dose Rotenone Induced Central and Peripheral Neuropathology and Motor Deficits in Mice: Reproducible Animal Model of Parkinson's Disease.

Epidemiological studies demonstrated that pesticide exposure, such as rotenone and paraquat, increases the risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). Chronic systemic exposure to rotenone, a mitochondrial complex I inhibitor, could reproduce many features of PD. However, the adoption of the models is limiting because of variability in animal sensitivity and the inability of other investigators to consistently reproduce the PD neuropathology. In addition, most of rotenone models were produced in rats. Here, we tried to establish a high-reproducible rotenone model using C57BL/6J mice. The rotenone mouse model was produced by chronic systemic exposure to a low dose of rotenone (2.5 mg/kg/day) for 4 weeks by subcutaneous implantation of rotenone-filled osmotic mini pump. The rotenone-treated mice exhibited motor deficits assessed by open field, rotarod and cylinder test and gastrointestinal dysfunction. Rotenone treatment decreased the number of dopaminergic neuronal cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and lesioned nerve terminal in the striatum. In addition, we observed significant reduction of cholinergic neurons in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV) and the intestinal myenteric plexus. Moreover, α-synuclein was accumulated in neuronal soma in the SNpc, DMV and intestinal myenteric plexus in rotenone-treated mice. These data suggest that the low-dose rotenone mouse model could reproduce behavioral and central and peripheral neurodegenerative features of PD and be a useful model for investigation of PD pathogenesis.

Effects of maternal bisphenol A diglycidyl ether exposure during gestation and lactation on behavior and brain development of the offspring.

Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE) is an epoxy resin used for the inner coating of canned food and beverages. BADGE can easily migrate from the containers and become a contaminant. In this study, we examined the effects of BADGE exposure to the dams on the behavioral, structural, and developmental abnormalities in the offspring. Female pregnant mice were fed with a diet containing BADGE (0.15 or 1.5 mg/kg/day) during gestation and lactation periods. In an open field test, the time spent in the corner area significantly increases in male mice of high-dose BADGE group at 5 weeks old. The histological analysis using offspring brain at postnatal day 1 delivered from BADGE (1.5 mg/kg/day)-treated dams demonstrates that positive signals of Forkhead box P2- and COUP-TF interacting protein 2 are restricted in each cortical layer, but not in the control brain. In addition, the maternal BADGE exposure reduces nestin-positive fibers of the radial glia and T-box transcription factor 2-positive intermediate progenitors in the inner subventricular zone. Furthermore, a direct BADGE exposure promotes neurite outgrowth and neuronal connection in the primary cultured cortical neurons. These data suggest that maternal BADGE exposure can accelerate neuronal differentiation in fetuses and induce anxiety-like behavior in juvenile mice.

Dopaminergic neuroprotective effects of rotigotine via 5-HT1A receptors: Possibly involvement of metallothionein expression in astrocytes.

Astrocytes exert neuroprotective effects through production of antioxidant molecules and neurotrophic factors. A recent study showed that stimulation of astrocyte serotonin 1A (5-HT1A) receptors promotes astrocyte proliferation and upregulation of the antioxidant molecules metallothionein (MT)-1,2, which protect dopaminergic neurons against oxidative stress. Rotigotine, an anti-parkinsonian drug, can bind to dopamine and 5-HT1A receptors. In this study, we examined neuroprotective effects of rotigotine in models of Parkinson's disease and involvement of astrocyte 5-HT1A receptors in neuroprotective effects of rotigotine against dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Rotigotine increased the number of astrocytes and MT-1,2 expression in cultured astrocytes. Pretreatment with conditioned media from rotigotine-treated astrocytes significantly inhibited 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity. These effects were completely blocked by a 5-HT1A antagonist or MT-1,2 specific antibody. Subcutaneous administration of rotigotine increased MT-1,2 expression in striatal astrocytes and prevented reduction of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of a 6-OHDA-lesioned mouse model of Parkinson's disease. These effects were blocked by co-administration with a 5-HT1A antagonist. These results suggest that rotigotine exerts neuroprotective effects through upregulation of MT expression in astrocytes by targeting 5-HT1A receptors. Our findings provide a possible therapeutic application of rotigotine to prevent dopaminergic neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.

Effects of Enteric Environmental Modification by Coffee Components on Neurodegeneration in Rotenone-Treated Mice.

Epidemiological studies have shown that coffee consumption decreases the risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). Caffeic acid (CA) and chlorogenic acid (CGA) are coffee components that have antioxidative properties. Rotenone, a mitochondrial complex I inhibitor, has been used to develop parkinsonian models, because the toxin induces PD-like pathology. Here, we examined the neuroprotective effects of CA and CGA against the rotenone-induced degeneration of central dopaminergic and peripheral enteric neurons. Male C57BL/6J mice were chronically administered rotenone (2.5 mg/kg/day), subcutaneously for four weeks. The animals were orally administered CA or CGA daily for 1 week before rotenone exposure and during the four weeks of rotenone treatment. Administrations of CA or CGA prevented rotenone-induced neurodegeneration of both nigral dopaminergic and intestinal enteric neurons. CA and CGA upregulated the antioxidative molecules, metallothionein (MT)-1,2, in striatal astrocytes of rotenone-injected mice. Primary cultured mesencephalic or enteric cells were pretreated with CA or CGA for 24 h, and then further co-treated with a low dose of rotenone (1⁻5 nM) for 48 h. The neuroprotective effects and MT upregulation induced by CA and CGA in vivo were reproduced in cultured cells. Our data indicated that intake of coffee components, CA and CGA, enhanced the antioxidative properties of glial cells and prevents rotenone-induced neurodegeneration in both the brain and myenteric plexus.