Screening for exclusion of high-risk bleeding features of esophageal varices in cirrhosis through CT and MRI.

BACKGROUND & AIM: Esophageal varices (EV) screening guidelines have evolved with improved risk stratification to avoid unnecessary esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) in individuals with low bleeding risks. However, uncertainties persist in the recommendations for certain patient groups, particularly those with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and/or receiving non-selective beta-blockers (NSBB) without prior endoscopy. This study assessed the efficacy of imaging in ruling out EVs and their high-risk features associated with bleeding in patients with cirrhosis and with HCC. We also evaluated the impact of NSBB on the detection of these characteristics. METHODS: A total of 119 patients undergoing EGD with CT and/or MRI within 90 days of the procedure were included. 87 patients had HCC. A new imaging grading system was developed utilizing the size of EVs and the extent of their protrusion into the esophagus lumen. The negative predictive value (NPV) of EVimaging(-) versus EVimaging (+) (grades 1-3) in ruling out the presence of EV and/or high-risk features by EGD was calculated. The predictive performance of imaging was determined by logistic regression. RESULTS: The NPV of imaging for detecting EV and high-risk features was 81 % and 92 %, respectively. Among HCC patients, the NPV for EV and high-risk features was 80 % and 64 %, respectively. Being on NSBB didn't statistically impact the imaging detection of EV. Imaging was a better predictor of high-risk EGD findings than Child-Turcotte-Pugh scores. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that imaging can effectively rule out the presence of EV and high-risk features during EGD, even in patients with HCC and/or receiving NSBB.

Predicting survival of patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma receiving combination targeted immunotherapy: an evaluation of volumetric imaging parameters.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the potential of volumetric imaging in predicting survival of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients receiving immunotherapy. METHODS: Retrospective analysis included 40 patients with advanced HCC who received targeted immunotherapy. Baseline and follow-up contrast-enhanced abdominal computed tomography (CT) scans were analyzed. The largest tumor was chosen as the index lesion. Viable tumor volume (qViable) and percentage tumor viability (%Viability) were calculated. Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) and Tumor volume change after treatment (qRECIST) were measured. Associations with overall survival (OS) were assessed. Cox regression analysis assessed the association between variables and overall survival (OS). A new prognostic stratification system was attempted to categorize patients based on significant predictors of OS. Patients with a baseline %viability > 69% and %viability reduction ≥ 8% were classified as better prognosis. Patients were stratified into better, intermediate and worse prognosis groups based on baseline %viability > 69% and ≥ 8% %viability reduction (better prognosis); baseline %viability ≤ 69% and < 8% %viability reduction (worse prognosis); remainder were intermediate prognosis. RESULTS: Patients with baseline %Viability > 69% and %Viability reduction ≥ 8% showed significantly higher OS. Multivariate analysis confirmed %Viability and %Viability reduction as significant predictors of OS. A prognostic stratification system using these parameters stratified patients into better, intermediate and worse prognosis groups, with the better prognosis showing highest OS. Most patients (97.5%) had stable disease by RECIST while the prognostic model re-classified 47.5% as better prognosis, 37.5% intermediate prognosis, and 15% worse prognosis. CONCLUSION: Volumetric parameters of %Viability and %Viability reduction predict OS in HCC patients undergoing immunotherapy.

Novel urine cell-free DNA methylation markers for hepatocellular carcinoma.

An optimized hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)-targeted methylation next generation sequencing assay was developed to discover HCC-associated methylation markers directly from urine for HCC screening. Urine cell-free DNA (ucfDNA) isolated from a discovery cohort of 31 non-HCC and 30 HCC was used for biomarker discovery, identifying 29 genes with differentially methylated regions (DMRs). Methylation-specific qPCR (MSqPCR) assays were developed to verify the selected DMRs corresponding to 8 genes (GRASP, CCND2, HOXA9, BMP4, VIM, EMX1, SFRP1, and ECE). Using archived ucfDNA, methylation of GRASP, HOXA9, BMP4, and ECE1, were found to be significantly different (p < 0.05) between HCC and non-HCC patients. The four markers together with previously reported GSTP1 and RASSF1A markers were assessed as a 6-marker panel in an independent training cohort of 87 non-HCC and 78 HCC using logistic regression modeling. AUROC of 0.908 (95% CI, 0.8656-0.9252) was identified for the 6-marker panel with AFP, which was significantly higher than AFP-alone (AUROC 0.841 (95% CI, 0.778-0.904), p = 0.0026). Applying backward selection method, a 4-marker panel was found to exhibit similar performance to the 6-marker panel with AFP having 80% sensitivity compared to 29.5% by AFP-alone at a specificity of 85%. This study supports the potential use of methylated transrenal ucfDNA for HCC screening.

Impact of Cell-Debris and Room-Temperature Storage on Urine Circulating Tumor DNA from Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

This study evaluated the impact of cell debris and 7-day room temperature storage on the quality and yield of transrenal DNA. Archived urine specimens collected from five hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients and two pregnant women carrying male fetuses were used to assess the impact of cell debris on urine cell-free DNA (ucfDNA) isolation as measured by quantitative PCR for Y-chromosome DNA, or HCC-associated mutation and methylation markers, and by capillary electrophoresis. Prospectively collected urine from 21 HCC patients was aliquoted after collection for paired immediate freezing versus 7-day room temperature storage followed by freezing for further analysis. Cell debris contained more Y-chromosome DNA than supernatant in three of the six urine specimens tested from pregnant women, suggesting that cell debris can be associated with 20.6% to 84.9% of transrenal ucfDNA. Ninety-five percent (20 of 21) of frozen and room temperature urine pairs had overlapping DNA size distribution. ucfDNA quantity determined by quantitative PCR for TP53, CTNNB1, TERT, and HCC-associated urine circulating tumor DNA markers were statistically similar between room temperature and frozen samples. This suggests no significant difference in DNA degradation between the groups. The association of transrenal ucfDNA with cell debris and HCC circulating DNA stability at room temperature is significant to further the understanding of transrenal circulating tumor DNA pre-analytical handling for HCC screening.

Single-molecule genome-wide mutation profiles of cell-free DNA for non-invasive detection of cancer.

Somatic mutations are a hallmark of tumorigenesis and may be useful for non-invasive diagnosis of cancer. We analyzed whole-genome sequencing data from 2,511 individuals in the Pan-Cancer Analysis of Whole Genomes (PCAWG) study as well as 489 individuals from four prospective cohorts and found distinct regional mutation type-specific frequencies in tissue and cell-free DNA from patients with cancer that were associated with replication timing and other chromatin features. A machine-learning model using genome-wide mutational profiles combined with other features and followed by CT imaging detected >90% of patients with lung cancer, including those with stage I and II disease. The fixed model was validated in an independent cohort, detected patients with cancer earlier than standard approaches and could be used to monitor response to therapy. This approach lays the groundwork for non-invasive cancer detection using genome-wide mutation features that may facilitate cancer screening and monitoring.

Detecting Liver Cancer Using Cell-Free DNA Fragmentomes.

Liver cancer is a major cause of cancer mortality worldwide. Screening individuals at high risk, including those with cirrhosis and viral hepatitis, provides an avenue for improved survival, but current screening methods are inadequate. In this study, we used whole-genome cell-free DNA (cfDNA) fragmentome analyses to evaluate 724 individuals from the United States, the European Union, or Hong Kong with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) or who were at average or high-risk for HCC. Using a machine learning model that incorporated multifeature fragmentome data, the sensitivity for detecting cancer was 88% in an average-risk population at 98% specificity and 85% among high-risk individuals at 80% specificity. We validated these results in an independent population. cfDNA fragmentation changes reflected genomic and chromatin changes in liver cancer, including from transcription factor binding sites. These findings provide a biological basis for changes in cfDNA fragmentation in patients with liver cancer and provide an accessible approach for noninvasive cancer detection. SIGNIFICANCE: There is a great need for accessible and sensitive screening approaches for HCC worldwide. We have developed an approach for examining genome-wide cfDNA fragmentation features to provide a high-performing and cost-effective approach for liver cancer detection. See related commentary Rolfo and Russo, p. 532. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 517.

Outcomes of immunotherapy-related hepatotoxicity from a multi-disciplinary toxicity team.

BACKGROUND: Despite the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), adverse events including hepatotoxicity limit their ongoing use. We investigated the outcomes and management of patients with immune-mediated hepatitis (IMH) and clinical predictors of toxicity resolution. METHODS: Patients referred to our multidisciplinary immunotherapy-related toxicity group from August 2017 to December 2020 for IMH were evaluated. Toxicity was defined according to CTCAEv4.0. IMH resolution was defined as liver enzyme normalization after steroid initiation. RESULTS: Thirty-three patients were included in the study, 62% female, and 71% Caucasian. The most common ICI used was PD-1/PD-L1 (76%). Peak IMH occurred at a median of 89 [45,193] days, for which most patients received 1-2 mg/kg/day prednisone equivalent with 35% requiring MMF. Median follow-up was 123 [33,472] days with IMH resolution seen in 48% of patients at a median of 111 [41,214] days. While high-dose steroid use was not associated with IMH resolution, liver enzyme improvement one week after steroids predicted resolution in univariate analysis (p = 0.041). All 11 patients without IMH resolution died from cancer progression or complications with three patients having acute liver failure. Available liver biopsies showed bile duct injury, with varying degrees of portal and lobular inflammation. CONCLUSION: IMH improvement one week after steroid initiation may predict ultimate IMH resolution.

Risk of Severe Illness and Risk Factors of Outcomes of COVID-19 in Hospitalized Patients with Chronic Liver Disease in a Major U. S. Hospital Network.

Methods: We studied 2731 patients with known CLD who were hospitalized at the Johns Hopkins Health System with COVID-19 between March 1, 2020, and December 15, 2021. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality, and secondary outcomes were MV and vasopressors. Multivariable Cox regression models were performed to explore factors associated with the outcomes. Results: Overall, 80.1% had severe COVID-19, all-cause mortality was 8.9%, 12.8% required MV, and 11.2% received vasopressor support. Older patients with underlying comorbidities were more likely to have severe COVID-19. There was association between elevated aminotransferases and total bilirubin with more severe COVID-19. Hepatic decompensation was independently associated with all-cause mortality (HR 2.94; 95% CI 1.23-7.06). Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD, HR 2.79, 95% CI, 1.00-8.02) was independently associated with increased risk for MV, and independent factors related to vasopressor support were chronic pulmonary disease and underlying malignancy. Conclusions: COVID-19 infection in patients with CLD is associated with poor outcomes. SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with hepatic decompensation was associated with an increased risk of in-hospital mortality hazard, and ALD among patients with COVID-19 was associated with an increased hazard for MV.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Predictors of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Progression and Dropout in Patients in Liver Transplantation Waiting List.

With the rising incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), more patients are now eligible for liver transplantation. Consequently, HCC progression and dropout from the waiting list are also anticipated to rise. We developed a predictive model based on radiographic features and alpha-fetoprotein to identify high-risk patients. Methods: This is a case-cohort retrospective study of 76 patients with HCC who were listed for liver transplantation with subsequent liver transplantation or delisting due to HCC progression. We analyzed imaging-based predictive variables including tumor margin (well- versus ill-defined), capsule bulging lesions, volumetric analysis and distance to portal vein, tumor numbers, and tumor diameter. Volumetric analysis of the index lesions was used to quantify index tumor total volume and volumetric enhancement, whereas logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analyses were used to predict the main outcome of disease progression. Results: In univariate analyses, the following baseline variables were significantly associated with disease progression: size and number of lesions, sum of lesion diameters, lesions bulging the capsule, and total and venous-enhancing (viable) tumor volumes. Based on multivariable analyses, a risk model including lesion numbers and diameter, capsule bulging, tumor margin (infiltrative versus well-defined), and alpha-fetoprotein was developed to predict HCC progression and dropout. The model has an area under the ROC of 82%, which was significantly higher than Milan criteria that has an area under the ROC of 67%. Conclusions: Our model has a high predictive test for patient dropout due to HCC progression. This model can identify high-risk patients who may benefit from more aggressive HCC treatment early after diagnosis to prevent dropout due to such disease progression.

Expanding the immunotherapy roadmap for hepatocellular carcinoma.

In a recent Lancet Oncology article, Yau et al. report the CheckMate 459 trial results. This is the first phase III trial comparing the single-agent anti-programmed death protein 1 (PD-1) therapy nivolumab to the tyrosine kinase inhibitor sorafenib for treatment-naive patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma.

Urine DNA biomarkers for hepatocellular carcinoma screening.

BACKGROUND: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) occurs in a well-defined high-risk patient population, but better screening tests are needed to improve sensitivity and efficacy. Therefore, we investigated the use of urine circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) as a screening test. METHODS: Candidate markers in urine were selected from HCC and controls. We then enrolled 609 patients from five medical centres to test the selected urine panel. A two-stage model was developed to combine AFP and urine panel as a screening test. RESULTS: Mutated TP53, and methylated RASSF1a, and GSTP1 were selected as the urine panel markers. Serum AFP outperformed the urine panel among all cases of HCC, but the urine panel identified 49% of HCC cases with low AFP < 20 ng/ml. Using the two-stage model, the combined AFP and urine panel identified 148 of the 186 HCC cases (79.6% sensitivity at 90% specificity), which was 30% more than the cases detected with serum AFP alone. It also increased early-stage HCC detection from 62% to 92% (BCLC stage 0), and 40% to 77% (BCLC stage A). CONCLUSION: Urine ctDNA has promising diagnostic utility in patients in HCC, especially in those with low AFP and can be used as a potential non-invasive HCC screening test.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Liver Cancer Staging at a Multidisciplinary Liver Cancer Clinic.

To compare liver cancer resectability rates before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Background: Liver cancers usually present with nonspecific symptoms or are diagnosed through screening programs for at-risk patients, and early detection can improve patient outcomes. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic upended medical care across all specialties, but whether the pandemic was associated with delays in liver cancer diagnosis is not known. Methods: We performed a retrospective review of all patients evaluated at the Johns Hopkins Multidisciplinary Liver Cancer Clinic from January 2019 to June 2021 with a new diagnosis of suspected or confirmed hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) or biliary tract cancer (BTC). Results: There were 456 liver cancer patients (258 HCC and 198 BTC). From January 2019 to March 2020 (pre-pandemic), the surgical resectability rate was 20%. The subsequent 6 months (early pandemic), the resectability rate decreased to 11%. Afterward from October 2020 to June 2021 (late pandemic), the resectability rate increased to 27%. The resectability rate early pandemic was significantly lower than that for pre-pandemic and later pandemic combined (11% lower; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2%-20%). There was no significant difference in resectability rates pre-pandemic and later pandemic (7% difference; 95% CI, -3% to 16%). In subgroup analyses, the early pandemic was associated with a larger impact in BTC resectability rates than HCC resectability rates. Time from BTC symptom onset until Multidisciplinary Liver Clinic evaluation increased by over 6 weeks early pandemic versus pre-pandemic (Hazard Ratio, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.44-0.91). Conclusions: During the early COVID-19 pandemic, we observed a drop in the percentage of patients presenting with curable liver cancers. This may reflect delays in liver cancer diagnosis and contribute to excess mortality related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Hepatocellular Carcinoma and the Role of Liver Transplantation: A Review.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer deaths worldwide and liver transplantation (LT) is the only potentially curative treatment. Over the years, Milan criteria has been used for patient selection. There is ongoing research in this field with introduction of new biomarkers for HCC that can help guide future treatment. Furthermore, newer therapies for downstaging of the tumor are being implemented to prevent dropout from the transplant list. In addition, combination therapies for better outcome are under investigation. Interestingly, the concept of living-donor LT and possible use of hepatitis C virus-positive donors has been implemented as an attempt to expand the organ pool. However, there is a conflict of opinion between different centers regarding its efficacy and data is scarce. The aim of this review article is to outline the various selection criteria for LT, discuss the outcomes of LT in HCC patients, and explore future directions of LT for HCC. Therefore, a comprehensive PubMed/MEDLINE review was conducted. To expand our search, references of the retrieved articles were also screened for additional data. After selecting the studies, the authors independently reviewed them to identify the relevant studies. After careful evaluation 120 studies relevant to out topic are cited in the manuscript. Three tables and two figures are also included. In conclusion LT for HCC has evolved over the years. With the introduction of several expanded criteria beyond Milan, the introduction of bridging therapies, such as transcatheter arterial chemoembolization and radiofrequency ablation, and the approval of newer systemic therapies, it is evident that there will be more LT recipients in the future. It is promising to see ongoing trials and the continuous evolution of protocols. Prospective studies are needed to guide the development of a pre-LT criteria that can ensure low HCC recurrence risk and is not overly stringent, clarify the role of LDLT, and determine the optimal bridging therapies to LT.

Development, Practice Patterns, and Early Clinical Outcomes of a Multidisciplinary Liver Cancer Clinic.

Multidisciplinary care has been associated with improved survival in patients with primary liver cancers. We report the practice patterns and real world clinical outcomes for patients presenting to the Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) multidisciplinary liver clinic (MDLC). We analyzed hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC, n = 100) and biliary tract cancer (BTC, n = 76) patients evaluated at the JHH MDLC in 2019. We describe the conduct of the clinic, consensus decisions for patient management based on stage categories, and describe treatment approaches and outcomes based on these categories. We describe subclassification of BCLC stage C into 2 parts, and subclassification of cholangiocarcinoma into 4 stages. A treatment consensus was finalized on the day of MDLC for the majority of patients (89% in HCC, 87% in BTC), with high adherence to MDLC recommendations (91% in HCC, 100% in BTC). Among patients presenting for a second opinion regarding management, 28% of HCC and 31% of BTC patients were given new therapeutic recommendations. For HCC patients, at a median follow up of 11.7 months (0.7-19.4 months), median OS was not reached in BCLC A and B patients. In BTC patients, at a median follow up of 14.2 months (0.9-21.1 months) the median OS was not reached in patients with resectable or borderline resectable disease, and was 11.9 months in patients with unresectable or metastatic disease. Coordinated expert multidisciplinary care is feasible for primary liver cancers with high adherence to recommendations and a change in treatment for a sizeable minority of patients.

Clinical course of COVID-19 in a liver transplant recipient on hemodialysis and response to tocilizumab therapy: A case report.

The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly infectious and rapidly spreading disease. There are limited published data on the epidemiology and outcomes of COVID-19 infection among organ transplant recipients. After initial flulike symptoms, progression to an inflammatory phase may occur, characterized by cytokine release rapidly leading to respiratory and multiorgan failure. We report the clinical course and management of a liver transplant recipient on hemodialysis, who presented with COVID-19 pneumonia, and despite completing a 5-day course of hydroxychloroquine, later developed marked inflammatory manifestations with rapid improvement after administration of off-label, single-dose tocilizumab. We also highlight the role of lung ultrasonography in early diagnosis of the inflammatory phase of COVID-19. Future investigation of the effects of immunomodulators among transplant recipients with COVID-19 infection will be important.

Recent Developments and Therapeutic Strategies against Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has emerged as a major cause of cancer deaths globally. The landscape of systemic therapy has recently changed, with six additional systemic agents either approved or awaiting approval for advanced stage HCC. While these agents have the potential to improve outcomes, a survival increase of 2-5 months remains poor and falls short of what has been achieved in many other solid tumor types. The roles of genomics, underlying cirrhosis, and optimal use of treatment strategies that include radiation, liver transplantation, and surgery remain unanswered. Here, we discuss new treatment opportunities, controversies, and future directions in managing HCC.

A Multidisciplinary Toxicity Team for Cancer Immunotherapy-Related Adverse Events.

BACKGROUND: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) may cause immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Methods to obtain real-time multidisciplinary input for irAEs that require subspecialist care are unknown. This study aimed to determine whether a virtual multidisciplinary immune-related toxicity (IR-tox) team of oncology and medicine subspecialists would be feasible to implement, be used by oncology providers, and identify patients for whom multidisciplinary input is sought. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients treated with ICIs and referred to the IR-tox team in August 2017 through March 2018 were identified. Feasibility was defined as receipt of electronic referrals and provision of recommendations within 24 hours of referral. Use was defined as the proportion of referring providers who used the team's recommendations, which was determined through a postpilot survey. Demographics and tumor, treatment, and referral data were collected. Patient features and irAE associations were analyzed. RESULTS: The IR-tox team was found to be feasible and used: 117 referrals from 102 patients were received in 8 months, all providers received recommendations within 24 hours, 100% of surveyed providers used the recommendations, and 74% changed patient management based on IR-tox team recommendations. Referrals were for suspected irAEs (n=106; 91%) and suitability to treat with ICIs (n=11; 10%). In referred patients, median age was 64 years, 54% were men, 13% had prior autoimmunity, and 46% received ICI combinations versus monotherapy (54%). The most commonly referred toxicities were pneumonitis (23%), arthritis (16%), and dermatitis (15%); 15% of patients had multisystem toxicities. Multiple referrals were more common in those treated with combination ICIs (odds ratio [OR], 6.0; P=.035) or with multisystem toxicities (OR, 8.1; P=.005). The IR-tox team provided a new multidisciplinary forum to assist providers in diagnosing and managing complex irAEs. This model identifies educational and service needs, and patients with irAEs for whom multidisciplinary care is most sought. CONCLUSIONS: A virtual multidisciplinary toxicity team for irAEs was a feasible and used service, and facilitated toxicity identification and management.

Multiple Immune-Suppressive Mechanisms in Fibrolamellar Carcinoma.

Fibrolamellar carcinoma (FLC) is a rare type of liver cancer that affects adolescents and young adults. The most effective treatment for FLC is surgical resection, but no standardized systemic therapy exists for patients with recurrent or unresectable FLC. As a first step to understand the immune microenvironment of FLC, we investigated targetable immune-checkpoint pathways, PD-1, PD-L1, B7-H3, IDO-1, and LAG3, in relation to CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte density. Thirty-two FLC tumor specimens were analyzed using IHC staining for PD-L1, CD8, PD-1, IDO, LAG3, and B7-H3. Sixty-three percent of FLC cases demonstrated membranous PD-L1 expression on tumor cells, and almost 70% of cases demonstrated PD-L1+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and tumor-associated macrophages (TIL/TAM). Myeloid-derived cells appeared to be a major component of PD-L1+ tumor-infiltrating immune cells. Forty percent of the cases showed B7-H3 expression in the tumor zone, with 91% cases showing B7-H3 expression in TILs and TAMs. IDO and PD-1 expression was highest in the tumor interface zone. B7-H3 or IDO expression on tumor cells significantly correlated with higher CD8+ T-cell density. In conclusion, a high proportion of FLC cases showed robust expression of PD-1, PD-L1, B7-H3, and IDO in an adaptive immune-resistance pattern. Our findings provide further basis for targeting these different immune-checkpoint axes in FLC.

Liquid Biopsy in Solid Malignancy.

The clinical utility of tissue biopsies in cancer management will continue to expand, especially with the evolving role of targeted therapies. "Liquid biopsy" refers to testing a patient's biofluid samples such as blood or urine to detect tumor-derived molecules and cells that can be used diagnostically and prognostically in the assessment of cancer. Many proof-of-concept and pilot studies have shown the clinical potential of liquid biopsies as diagnostic and prognostic markers which would provide a surrogate for the conventional "solid biopsy". In this review, we focus on three methods of liquid biopsy-circulating tumor cells, extracellular vesicles, and circulating tumor DNA-to provide a landscape view of their clinical applicability in cancer management and research.

Liquid biopsies for hepatocellular carcinoma.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the world's second leading cause of cancer death; 82.4% of patients die within 5 years. This grim prognosis is the consequence of a lack of effective early detection tools, limited treatment options, and the high frequency of HCC recurrence. Advances in the field of liquid biopsy hold great promise in improving early detection of HCC, advancing patient prognosis, and ultimately increasing the survival rate. In an effort to address the current challenges of HCC screening and management, several studies have identified and evaluated liver-cancer-associated molecular signatures such as genetic alterations, methylation, and noncoding RNA expression in the form of circulating biomarkers in body fluids and circulating tumor cells of HCC patients. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in HCC liquid biopsy, organized by the intended clinical application of the reported study.