Enteric Pathogens Detected in Children under Five Years Old Admitted with Diarrhea in Moshi, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.

Despite the availability and wide coverage of rotavirus vaccinations in Tanzania, there is still a significant number of diarrhea cases being reported, with some patients requiring hospital admission. We investigated diarrhea-causing pathogens and determined the effect of co-infection on clinical symptoms. Total nucleic acid was extracted from archived stool samples (N = 146) collected from children (0-59 months) admitted with diarrhea in health facilities in Moshi, Kilimanjaro. Pathogen detection was performed using the quantitative polymerase chain reaction with custom TaqMan Array cards. The Poisson model was used to determine the effect of co-infection on clinical presentation during admission. Of all the participants, 56.85% were from rural Moshi with a median age of 11.74 months (IQR: 7.41-19.09). Vomiting (88.36%) and a fever (60.27%) were the most frequent clinical manifestations. At least one diarrhea-associated pathogen was detected in 80.14% (n = 117) of the study population. The most prevalent pathogens were rotavirus 38.36% (n = 56), adenovirus 40/41 19.86% (n = 29), Shigella/EIEC 12.33% (n = 18), norovirus GII 11.44% (n = 17) and Cryptosporidium 9.59% (n = 14). Co-infections were detected in 26.03% of the study population (n = 38). The presence of multiple pathogens in the stool samples of children with diarrhea indicates poor sanitation and may have significant implications for disease management and patient outcomes.

High diversity of Salmonella spp. from children with diarrhea, food, and environmental sources in Kilimanjaro - Tanzania: one health approach.

Salmonella is one of the most frequent causes of diarrhea globally. This study used a One Health approach to identify Salmonella species in children admitted with diarrhea and tested samples from the cases' household environment to investigate their genetic similarity using whole genome sequencing. Surveillance of hospitalized diarrhea cases among children under 5 years was conducted in rural and urban Moshi Districts in the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania from July 2020 through November 2022. Household visits were conducted for every child case whose parent/caregiver provided consent. Stool samples, water, domestic animal feces, meat, and milk were collected and tested for Salmonella. Isolates were sequenced on the Illumina NextSeq platform. Multilocus Sequence Typing and phylogenetic analyses were performed to map the genetic relatedness of the isolates. Salmonella was isolated from 72 (6.0%) of 1,191 samples. The prevalence of Salmonella in children with diarrhea, domestic animal feces, food, and water was 2.6% (n = 8/306), 4.6% (n = 8/174), 4.2% (n = 16/382), and 17.3% (n = 39/225), respectively. Four (1.3%) of the 306 enrolled children had a Salmonella positive sample taken from their household. The common sequence types (STs) were ST1208, ST309, ST166, and ST473. Salmonella Newport was shared by a case and a raw milk sample taken from the same household. The study revealed a high diversity of Salmonella spp., however, we detected a Salmonella clone of ST1208 isolated at least from all types of samples. These findings contribute to understanding the epidemiology of Salmonella in the region and provide insight into potential control of foodborne diseases through a One Health approach.

Facility-based disease surveillance and Bayesian hierarchical modeling to estimate endemic typhoid fever incidence, Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania, 2007-2018.

Growing evidence suggests considerable variation in endemic typhoid fever incidence at some locations over time, yet few settings have multi-year incidence estimates to inform typhoid control measures. We sought to describe a decade of typhoid fever incidence in the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania. Cases of blood culture confirmed typhoid were identified among febrile patients at two sentinel hospitals during three study periods: 2007-08, 2011-14, and 2016-18. To account for under-ascertainment at sentinel facilities, we derived adjustment multipliers from healthcare utilization surveys done in the hospital catchment area. Incidence estimates and credible intervals (CrI) were derived using a Bayesian hierarchical incidence model that incorporated uncertainty of our observed typhoid fever prevalence, of healthcare seeking adjustment multipliers, and of blood culture diagnostic sensitivity. Among 3,556 total participants, 50 typhoid fever cases were identified. Of typhoid cases, 26 (52%) were male and the median (range) age was 22 (<1-60) years; 4 (8%) were aged <5 years and 10 (20%) were aged 5 to 14 years. Annual typhoid fever incidence was estimated as 61.5 (95% CrI 14.9-181.9), 6.5 (95% CrI 1.4-20.4), and 4.0 (95% CrI 0.6-13.9) per 100,000 persons in 2007-08, 2011-14, and 2016-18, respectively. There were no deaths among typhoid cases. We estimated moderate typhoid incidence (≥10 per 100 000) in 2007-08 and low (<10 per 100 000) incidence during later surveillance periods, but with overlapping credible intervals across study periods. Although consistent with falling typhoid incidence, we interpret this as showing substantial variation over the study periods. Given potential variation, multi-year surveillance may be warranted in locations making decisions about typhoid conjugate vaccine introduction and other control measures.

Performance of Xpert Ultra nasopharyngeal swab for identification of tuberculosis deaths in northern Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: Numerous tuberculosis (TB) deaths remain undetected in low-resource endemic settings. With autopsy-confirmed tuberculosis as our standard, we assessed the diagnostic performance of Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (Ultra; Cepheid) on nasopharyngeal specimens collected postmortem. METHODS: From October 2016 through May 2019, we enrolled pediatric and adult medical deaths to a prospective autopsy study at two referral hospitals in northern Tanzania with next-of-kin authorization. We swabbed the posterior nasopharynx prior to autopsy and tested the samples later by Ultra. At autopsy we collected lung, liver, and, when possible, cerebrospinal fluid for mycobacterial culture and histopathology. Confirmed tuberculosis was defined as Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex recovery by culture with consistent tissue histopathology findings; decedents with only histopathology findings, including acid-fast staining or immunohistochemistry, were defined as probable tuberculosis. RESULTS: Of 205 decedents, 78 (38.0%) were female and median (range) age was 45 (0,96) years. Twenty-seven (13.2%) were found to have tuberculosis at autopsy, 22 (81.5%) confirmed and 5 (18.5%) probable. Ultra detected M. tuberculosis complex from the nasopharynx in 21 (77.8%) of 27 TB cases (sensitivity 70.4% [95% confidence interval {CI} 49.8-86.2%], specificity 98.9% [95% CI 96.0-99.9%]). Among confirmed TB, the sensitivity increased to 81.8% (95% CI 59.7-94.8%). Tuberculosis was not included as a death certificate diagnosis in 14 (66.7%) of the 21 MTBc detections by Ultra. DISCUSSION: Nasopharyngeal Ultra was highly specific for identifying in-hospital tuberculosis deaths, including unsuspected tuberculosis deaths. This approach may improve tuberculosis death enumeration in high-burden countries.

Trends in fever case management for febrile inpatients in a low malaria incidence setting of Tanzania.

OBJECTIVES: In 2010, WHO published guidelines emphasising parasitological confirmation of malaria before treatment. We present data on changes in fever case management in a low malaria transmission setting of northern Tanzania after 2010. METHODS: We compared diagnoses, treatments and outcomes from two hospital-based prospective cohort studies, Cohort 1 (2011-2014) and Cohort 2 (2016-2019), that enrolled febrile children and adults. All participants underwent quality-assured malaria blood smear-microscopy. Participants who were malaria smear-microscopy negative but received a diagnosis of malaria or received an antimalarial were categorised as malaria over-diagnosis and over-treatment, respectively. RESULTS: We analysed data from 2098 participants. The median (IQR) age was 27 (3-43) years and 1047 (50.0%) were female. Malaria was detected in 23 (2.3%) participants in Cohort 1 and 42 (3.8%) in Cohort 2 (p = 0.059). Malaria over-diagnosis occurred in 334 (35.0%) participants in Cohort 1 and 190 (17.7%) in Cohort 2 (p < 0.001). Malaria over-treatment occurred in 528 (55.1%) participants in Cohort 1 and 196 (18.3%) in Cohort 2 (p < 0.001). There were 30 (3.1%) deaths in Cohort 1 and 60 (5.4%) in Cohort 2 (p = 0.007). All deaths occurred among smear-negative participants. CONCLUSION: We observed a substantial decline in malaria over-diagnosis and over-treatment among febrile inpatients in northern Tanzania between two time periods after 2010. Despite changes, some smear-negative participants were still diagnosed and treated for malaria. Our results highlight the need for continued monitoring of fever case management across different malaria epidemiological settings in sub-Saharan Africa.

Dyslipidemia in HIV-Infected Children and Adolescents on Antiretroviral Therapy Receiving Care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide prevalence of dyslipidemia in HIV-infected children on antiretroviral medications (ARVs) is rising due to extensive use of treatment during their entire lives. Dyslipidemia is the potential side effect of ARVs, especially in individuals taking protease inhibitors. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of dyslipidemia in HIV-infected children on ARVs receiving care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC) in Tanzania. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional hospital-based study conducted from September 2015 to May 2016 at KCMC. HIV-infected children and adolescents less than 17 years on ARVs for more than 6 months were enrolled. Blood samples were taken to determine levels of triglycerides (TGs), total cholesterol, lipoproteins (including low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)), CD4+ T cells, and viral load (VL). Anthropometric measurements were used to assess nutritional status. SPSS 20.0 was used for analysis. Logistic regression estimated odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI), and P value <.05 was considered significant. Written consent was obtained from parents/guardians on behalf of their children and assent for older children. RESULTS: A total of 260 participants were included in the study; the median age at HIV diagnosis was 3 (interquartile range (IQR) = 1-6) years. The overall prevalence of dyslipidemia was 46.5% with hypercholesterolemia (⩾200 mg/dl) of 11.2%, HDL (<35 mg/dl) of 22.7%, LDL (⩾130 mg/dl) of 7.7%, and hyperglyceridemia (TG ⩾150 mg/dl) of 12.3%. Children aged between 6 and 12 years at HIV diagnosis had 2.7 times higher odds of developing dyslipidemia compared with younger age at diagnosis (OR = 2.7; 95% CI = 1.1-6.6). Patients with advanced (OR = 6.4; 95% CI = 1.5-27.1) or severe (OR = 9.8; 95% CI = 1.2-76.5) HIV-associated immunodeficiency at diagnosis had higher odds of developing dyslipidemia. Protease inhibitor use was associated with higher odds of developing dyslipidemia (OR = 3.1; 95% CI = 1.4-7.1). CONCLUSION: Late diagnosis of HIV at 6 years of age or more, advanced, or severe immunosuppression, and the use of protease inhibitors were independent predictors of dyslipidemia in children on ARVs after 6 months of treatment, and with low HDL levels observed most commonly. Monitoring lipid profiles in children, especially those on protease inhibitors and with advanced/severe immunosuppression at diagnosis, may help in preventing future complications.

Neuropsychiatric symptoms in Tanzanian HIV-infected children receiving long-term efavirenz treatment: a multicentre, cross-sectional, observational study.

BACKGROUND: Efavirenz is commonly prescribed for children with HIV infection, yet little is known about risks of neuropsychiatric side-effects. We aimed to compare competence (social involvement, activities, and school performance) and psychopathology (internalising and externalising problems), cognitive performance (intelligence and working memory), and adherence in Tanzanian children on an efavirenz-based versus a non-efavirenz-based regimen. METHODS: In this multicentre, cross-sectional, observational study, we included consecutive children (aged 6-12 years) with HIV infection, on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) for at least 6 months, and with viral loads of less than 1000 copies per mL from HIV care clinics of three primary health facilities and three referral hospitals in Moshi, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Children with acute illnesses, medication switch in the 6 months before the study visit, and any history of brain injury or developmental delay before cART initiation were excluded. All interviews and assessments were done by trained local research nurses under the supervision of a medical doctor. The primary outcomes, competence and psychopathology, were measured with the Child Behavior Checklist. We used ANCOVA to assess differences between groups. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT03227653. FINDINGS: Between June 19, 2017, and Dec 14, 2017, 141 children were analysed, of whom 72 (51%) used efavirenz-based cART and 69 (49%) used non-efavirenz-based cART. After controlling for age, sex, and clinical and demographic confounders, we observed lower competence (adjusted mean difference -2·43 [95% CI -4·19 to -0·67], p=0·0071), largely driven by lower school performance scores (adjusted mean difference -0·91 [-1·42 to -0·40], p=0·00055), in the efavirenz group than in the non-efavirenz group. More total (adjusted mean difference 5·96 [95% CI -1·12 to 13·04], p=0·098) and internalising (adjusted mean difference 2·00 [-0·29 to 4·29], p=0·086) behavioural problems were seen in the efavirenz group than in the non-efavirenz group, although these findings were non-significant. No differences were found in externalising problems (adjusted mean difference 0·78 [95% CI -1·55 to 3·11], p=0·51). INTERPRETATION: Our results suggest that treatment with efavirenz in children is associated with a mild increase in neuropsychiatric symptoms, especially in children who receive doses higher than or equal to the WHO recommended doses for efavirenz. Clinical awareness and adequate follow-up of neuropsychiatric symptoms in efavirenz in children remain warranted. FUNDING: Aidsfonds, Radboud University Medical Center.

Iron Depletion, Iron Deficiency, and Iron Deficiency Anaemia Among Children Under 5 Years Old in Kilimanjaro, Northern Tanzania: A Hospital-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Iron depletion results from reduced iron stores, and it is an early stage of disease progression before iron deficiency, which leads to iron deficiency anaemia (IDA). IDA is associated with delayed infant growth and development, diminished cognitive function, poor academic performance, decreased exercise tolerance, and impaired immune function. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of iron depletion and IDA and factors associated with low ferritin levels among children under 5-years-old receiving care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC) in Moshi, Tanzania. METHODS: Under-5 children presenting at KCMC were successively enrolled and screened for iron depletion and IDA using complete blood count and serum ferritin levels. The generally accepted World Health Organization cut-off levels for normal haemoglobin (Hb) and ferritin level were used. Iron depletion, iron deficiency, and IDA prevalences were estimated in relation to the combination measures of haemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, and ferritin levels. Dietary and sociodemographic characteristic of the children were recorded after parents or caretakers provided informed consent. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 21.0. RESULTS: A total of 303 children aged 2 to 59 months were enrolled in the study. Anaemia was detected in169 (55.8%) children. Children aged 2 to 12 months had a higher prevalence of anaemia (n=101, 60.1%). The overall prevalences of iron depletion, iron deficiency with no anaemia, and IDA were 2.6% (n=8), 9.6% (n=29), and 28.1% (n=84), respectively. Low ferritin levels were detected in 124 (40.9%) children. Drinking more than 500 ml of cow's milk per day was associated with an increased risk of anaemia (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 5.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.6 to 12.1) relative to those not drinking cow's milk. Children whose families had meals that included beef more than 3 times per week were less likely to have low ferritin (AOR 0.6; 95% CI, 0.3 to 1.3), though the difference was not significant. CONCLUSION: The IDA prevalence among children in the Kilimanjaro area was high, with more than 50% of infants being anaemic. Drinking cow's milk was associated with an increased risk of IDA. Future community-based research is recommended to elucidate more details about iron deficiency in the general population.

Seroprevalence, risk factors and comorbidities associated with Helicobacter pylori infection amongst children receiving care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Center.

BACKGROUND: Helicobacter pylori frequently causes gastritis and peptic ulcers, and affected children are at risk of developing gastric carcinoma later in adulthood. METHODS: This was a Hospital based cross sectional study. A total of 200 children aged 6 months to 14 years were enrolled. Study subjects were tested for H. pylori using a standard serology rapid test measuring immunoglobulin G for H. pylori. For risk factors, Chi-square tests were used to test for association and then, odds ratios and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals and p-values were computed using logistic regression. RESULTS: The overall seroprevalence of H. pylori was 11.5%. The following factors were associated with H. pylori infection: Age group above 10 years, keeping a dog and household size. The independent predictors of H. pylori were: Fathers' occupation, keeping a dog, indoor tap water, age group, household size and diabetes mellitus type 1.. CONCLUSION: The seroprevalence of H. pylori antibodies was lower compared to most developing countries. Keeping a dog, household size, indoor tap water, fathers' occupation and diabetes mellitus type 1 were found to be independent predictors of presence of H. pylori antibodies.

Acute kidney injury in a Tanzanian boy following multiple bee stings in resource-limited setting: a case report.

Bee sting has been identified as among causative agents of nephrotoxic acute tubular necrosis which may lead to acute kidney injury. Bee envenomation has medicinal properties but when a higher dose is inoculated may cause severe anaphylaxis with very poor prognosis. We report a 12-year-old boy with acute kidney injury following multiple bee stings who recovered well after hemodialysis.

Adherence to Exclusive Breastfeeding and Associated Factors in Mothers of HIV-Exposed Infants Receiving Care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: More than 90% of HIV in children occurs through mother-to-child transmission. Breastfeeding is one of several factors associated with transmission of HIV, and, because of this, infant feeding practice is one of the cornerstones in the effort to reduce HIV transmission in children. World Health Organization guidelines from 2012 recommend exclusive breastfeeding to all infants for first 6 months of life. However, many factors contribute to the adherence of mothers to exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) recommendations. The aim of this study was to determine what factors likely influence adherence to exclusive breastfeeding in mothers of HIV-exposed infants receiving care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre. METHODS: A cross-sectional hospital-based study was conducted from September 2012 to March 2013 at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi. All mothers of HIV-exposed infants aged 6 to 12 months receiving care at child-centred family care clinic who consented to participate in the study were included. Data were collected using a pretested structured questionnaire and analysed using SPSS version 16.0 statistical package. RESULTS: Of the 128 mothers of HIV-exposed infants enrolled in the study, 71 (55.5%) adhered to EBF for 6 months. No statistical significance was seen between adherence status and maternal characteristics in bivariate analysis (P>.05). The mean age and standard deviation of initiating other foods by mothers who did not adhere was 3.32 months ± 1.24. Of 57 (44.5%) non-adherent mothers, one-tenth of them practised mixed breastfeeding and the rest stopped breastfeeding completely. Fear of postnatal transmission of HIV through breastfeeding and inadequate breast milk production were the most common reasons for non-adherence to EBF. CONCLUSION: Adherence to the recommended duration for EBF by mothers to their HIV-exposed infants is still a challenge. Ongoing intensive feeding counselling and education on EBF may increase the number of mother who can adhere to EBF in our society.

Efavirenz is related to neuropsychiatric symptoms among adults, but not among adolescents living with human immunodeficiency virus in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the relationship between Efavirenz (EFV) and neuropsychiatric symptoms among adults and adolescents living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. METHODS: Cross-sectional study among HIV-infected adults (age 18-65) and adolescents (age 12-17) on antiretroviral treatment attending Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania. Neuropsychiatric symptoms were measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), the Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90) and the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). manova and chi-squared tests were used to test differences between EFV and non-EFV-treated participants. RESULTS: A total of 215 adults and 150 adolescents participated. About 52% of adults and 37% of adolescents used EFV. Among adults, depression scores were higher for those on EFV (HADS (Cohen's D: 0.38; P = 0.02) and SCL-90 (Cohen's D: 0.24; P = 0.03). Among adolescents, those on EFV had lower scores on depression (HADS (Cohen's D: 0.3; P = 0.02) and SCL-90 (Cohen's D: 0.1; P = 0.02). About 10% of adults reported suicidal thoughts, but there was no difference between those on EFV and those without. Lastly, adults on EFV reported higher levels of problematic alcohol use (P = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: In line with the previous studies, EFV is associated with depressive symptoms and problematic alcohol use among HIV-infected adults in Tanzania. In contrast, EFV was associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms in adolescents in Tanzania. Particularly among adults, close monitoring of depressive symptoms and alcohol use is indicated.

TORCH Antibodies Among Pregnant Women and Their Newborns Receiving Care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasmosis, other (syphilis, varicella-zoster, parvovirus B19, and hepatitis B), rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV), and herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) - known by the acronym TORCH - is a group of infections affecting both mothers and their unborn babies with adverse short- and long-term outcomes. The majority of infected mothers are asymptomatic, which leaves only speculation as to the probable cause of many congenital anomalies, stillbirths, prematurity, and death resulting from TORCH infections. The main objective of this study was to investigate previous exposure to TORCH infections by measuring the seroprevalence of TORCH antibodies in pregnant women and their newborns receiving care at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC), Moshi, Tanzania. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional, hospital-based study conducted at KCMC from December 2013 to April 2014. Of 350 pregnant women enrolled in the study, we tested 347 pregnant women attending the antenatal clinic and who opted to deliver at KCMC. Cord blood was collected and analysed for 309 of their newborns. To identify immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies in mothers and IgM antibodies in newborns, we used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay testing. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data of mothers and their newborns. Data analysis was done using SPSS version 20. RESULTS: The seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to TORCH infections among pregnant women was 154 (44.4%) for toxoplasmosis, 311 (89.6%) for rubella, 343 (98.6%) for CMV, and 346 (99.7%) for HSV-1 and HSV-2; 141 (40.6%) had been exposed to all 4 infections. For HSV-1 and HSV-2, the IgM antibodies were found in 137 (39.5%) of the 347 pregnant women included in this study. Age above 35 years (OR 6.15; 95% CI, 1.22-31.1; P=.028) and multiparity (OR 1.63; 95% CI, 1.01-2.62; P=.045) were associated with higher risk of being exposed to all TORCH infections. A total of 11 newborns had IgM antibodies to HSV-1 and HSV-2 giving a seroprevalence of 3.6%, and one newborn had IgM antibodies to rubella, giving a seroprevalence of 0.3%. None of the newborns had antibodies to toxoplasmosis and CMV. CONCLUSION: Exposure to TORCH infections was high among pregnant women in our population. Older age and multi-parity were associated with a higher risk of being exposed to all TORCH infections. Seroprevalence to HSV-1 and HSV-2 was high in newborns. The higher IgM antibodies to HSV-1 and HSV-2 among pregnant mothers and their newborns may disturb maternal, fetal, and neonatal health, and therefore we recommend establishing treatment protocol to support management of pregnant women and newborns who are seropositive for IgM antibodies.

Secondary Myelitis in Dermal Sinus Causing Paraplegia in a Child with Previously Normal Neurological Function.

Neural tube defects result from failure of neural tube fusion during early embryogenesis, the fourth week after conception. The spectrum of severity is not uniform across the various forms of this congenital anomaly as certain presentations are not compatible with extrauterine life (anencephaly) while, on the other hand, other defects may remain undiagnosed as they are entirely asymptomatic (occult spina bifida). We report a child with previously normal neurological development, a devastating clinical course following superinfection of a subtle spina bifida defect which resulted in a flaccid paralysis below the level of the lesion and permanent neurological deficits following resolution of the acute infection and a back closure surgery.

Prevalence of persistent microalbuminuria and associated factors among HIV infected children attending a Tertiary Hospital in Northern Tanzania: a cross sectional, analytical study.

INTRODUCTION: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection is a significant cause of paediatric morbidity and mortality especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. It affects the kidney by injuring the glomerular and tubular epithelial cells causing leakage of albumin in urine. Microalbuminuria is known to be an early indicator of kidney injury including HIVAN. The purpose of this study was to identify the prevalence and factors associated with microalbuminuria among HIV infected children receiving care and treatment at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC). METHODS: We conducted a cross sectional hospital based analytical study at KCMC from December 2012 to April 2013. It involved children who are HIV infected attending child centred family care clinics (CCFCC). Patients' demographic and clinical characteristics were extracted from the file; physical examination performed. Urine samples were analysed for by HemoCue Albumin 201 system analyzer. Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 16.0 was be used to process and analyze the data. RESULTS: Three hundred thirty HIV-infected children under 18 years were recruited during the study period. Mean age was 119.4 (5-218) months. Prevalence of microalbuminuria by using HemoCue Albumin 201 analyzer was 28.8% (n = 95). Presence of microalbuminuria was significantly associated with severity of HIV disease progression according to WHO disease stage (p = 0.0015) and CD4 count less than 350 cells/µL (p = 0.044). CONCLUSION: The study has shown that microalbuminuria is common in HIV infected children. Early screening and treatment of microalbuminuria is important to minimize the risk of developing end stage kidney disease. Children with advanced HIV disease and those with CD4 count less than 350 cells/µL should be given priority for urinary albumin screening in a setting without routine screening for microalbuminuria.

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva with minor unilateral hallux anomaly in a sporadic case from Northern Tanzania with the common ACVR1c.617G>A mutation.

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva is a rare autosomal dominantly inherited disorder of connective tissue caused by mutations in the gene encoding for ACVR1/ALK2, a bone morphogenetic protein type I receptor. It is mainly characterized by congenital malformations of the great toes and the formation of qualitatively normal bone in extra-skeletal sites leading to severe disability and eventually death. We present a sporadic case from Northern Tanzania with a minor unilateral hallux anomaly and the common ACVR1 c.617G>A mutation.

Invasive Salmonella infections in areas of high and low malaria transmission intensity in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: The epidemiology of Salmonella Typhi and invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) differs, and prevalence of these pathogens among children in sub-Saharan Africa may vary in relation to malaria transmission intensity. METHODS: We compared the prevalence of bacteremia among febrile pediatric inpatients aged 2 months to 13 years recruited at sites of high and low malaria endemicity in Tanzania. Enrollment at Teule Hospital, the high malaria transmission site, was from June 2006 through May 2007, and at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC), the low malaria transmission site, from September 2007 through August 2008. Automated blood culture, malaria microscopy with Giemsa-stained blood films, and human immunodeficiency virus testing were performed. RESULTS: At Teule, 3639 children were enrolled compared to 467 at KCMC. Smear-positive malaria was detected in 2195 of 3639 (60.3%) children at Teule and 11 of 460 (2.4%) at KCMC (P < .001). Bacteremia was present in 336 of 3639 (9.2%) children at Teule and 20 of 463 (4.3%) at KCMC (P < .001). NTS was isolated in 162 of 3639 (4.5%) children at Teule and 1 of 463 (0.2%) at KCMC (P < .001). Salmonella Typhi was isolated from 11 (0.3%) children at Teule and 6 (1.3%) at KCMC (P = .008). With NTS excluded, the prevalence of bacteremia at Teule was 5.0% and at KCMC 4.1% (P = .391). CONCLUSIONS: Where malaria transmission was intense, invasive NTS was common and Salmonella Typhi was uncommon, whereas the inverse was observed at a low malaria transmission site. The relationship between these pathogens, the environment, and the host is a compelling area for further research.