Jasmonate activates secondary cell wall biosynthesis through MYC2-MYB46 module.

Formation of secondary cell wall (SCW) is tightly regulated spatiotemporally by various developmental and environmental signals. Successful fine-tuning of the trade-off between SCW biosynthesis and stress responses requires a better understanding of how plant growth is regulated under environmental stress conditions. However, the current understanding of the interplay between environmental signaling and SCW formation is limited. The lipid-derived plant hormone jasmonate (JA) and its derivatives are important signaling components involved in various physiological processes including plant growth, development, and abiotic/biotic stress responses. Recent studies suggest that JA is involved in SCW formation but the signaling pathway has not been studied for how JA regulates SCW formation. We tested this hypothesis using the transcription factor MYB46, a master switch for SCW biosynthesis, and JA treatments. Both the transcript and protein levels of MYB46, a master switch for SCW formation, were significantly increased by JA treatment, resulting in the upregulation of SCW biosynthesis. We then show that this JA-induced upregulation of MYB46 is mediated by MYC2, a central regulator of JA signaling, which binds to the promoter of MYB46. We conclude that this MYC2-MYB46 module is a key component of the plant response to JA in SCW formation.

Arabidopsis transcription factor TCP13 promotes shade avoidance syndrome-like responses by directly targeting a subset of shade-responsive gene promoters.

TCP13 belongs to a subgroup of TCP transcription factors implicated in the shade avoidance syndrome (SAS), but its exact role remains unclear. Here, we show that TCP13 promotes the SAS-like response by enhancing hypocotyl elongation and suppressing flavonoid biosynthesis as a part of the incoherent feed-forward loop in light signaling. Shade is known to promote the SAS by activating PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR (PIF)-auxin signaling in plants, but we found no evidence in a transcriptome analysis that TCP13 activates PIF-auxin signaling. Instead, TCP13 mimics shade by activating the expression of a subset of shade-inducible and cell elongation-promoting SAUR genes including SAUR19, by direct targeting of their promoters. We also found that TCP13 and PIF4, a molecular proxy for shade, repress the expression of flavonoid biosynthetic genes by directly targeting both shared and distinct sets of biosynthetic gene promoters. Together, our results indicate that TCP13 promotes the SAS-like response by directly targeting a subset of shade-responsive genes without activating the PIF-auxin signaling pathway.

Seasonal Developing Xylem Transcriptome Analysis of Pinus densiflora Unveils Novel Insights for Compression Wood Formation.

Wood is the most important renewable resource not only for numerous practical utilizations but also for mitigating the global climate crisis by sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide. The compressed wood (CW) of gymnosperms, such as conifers, plays a pivotal role in determining the structure of the tree through the reorientation of stems displaced by environmental forces and is characterized by a high content of lignin. Despite extensive studies on many genes involved in wood formation, the molecular mechanisms underlying seasonal and, particularly, CW formation remain unclear. This study examined the seasonal dynamics of two wood tissue types in Pinus densiflora: CW and opposite wood (OW). RNA sequencing of developing xylem for two consecutive years revealed comprehensive transcriptome changes and unique differences in CW and OW across seasons. During growth periods, such as spring and summer, we identified 2255 transcripts with differential expression in CW, with an upregulation in lignin biosynthesis genes and significant downregulation in stress response genes. Notably, among the laccases critical for monolignol polymerization, PdeLAC17 was found to be specifically expressed in CW, suggesting its vital role in CW formation. PdeERF4, an ERF transcription factor preferentially expressed in CW, seems to regulate PdeLAC17 activity. This research provides an initial insight into the transcriptional regulation of seasonal CW development in P. densiflora, forming a foundation for future studies to enhance our comprehension of wood formation in gymnosperms.

Exploring the Seasonal Dynamics and Molecular Mechanism of Wood Formation in Gymnosperm Trees.

Forests, comprising 31% of the Earth's surface, play pivotal roles in regulating the carbon, water, and energy cycles. Despite being far less diverse than angiosperms, gymnosperms account for over 50% of the global woody biomass production. To sustain growth and development, gymnosperms have evolved the capacity to sense and respond to cyclical environmental signals, such as changes in photoperiod and seasonal temperature, which initiate growth (spring and summer) and dormancy (fall and winter). Cambium, the lateral meristem responsible for wood formation, is reactivated through a complex interplay among hormonal, genetic, and epigenetic factors. Temperature signals perceived in early spring induce the synthesis of several phytohormones, including auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, which in turn reactivate cambium cells. Additionally, microRNA-mediated genetic and epigenetic pathways modulate cambial function. As a result, the cambium becomes active during the summer, resulting in active secondary xylem (i.e., wood) production, and starts to become inactive in autumn. This review summarizes and discusses recent findings regarding the climatic, hormonal, genetic, and epigenetic regulation of wood formation in gymnosperm trees (i.e., conifers) in response to seasonal changes.

ß-Glucosidase and Its Application in Bioconversion of Ginsenosides in Panax ginseng.

Ginsenosides are a group of bioactive compounds isolated from Panax ginseng. Conventional major ginsenosides have a long history of use in traditional medicine for both illness prevention and therapy. Bioconversion processes have the potential to create new and valuable products in pharmaceutical and biological activities, making them both critical for research and highly economic to implement. This has led to an increase in the number of studies that use major ginsenosides as a precursor to generate minor ones using ß-glucosidase. Minor ginsenosides may also have useful properties but are difficult to isolate from raw ginseng because of their scarcity. Bioconversion processes have the potential to create novel minor ginsenosides from the more abundant major ginsenoside precursors in a cost-effective manner. While numerous bioconversion techniques have been developed, an increasing number of studies have reported that ß-glucosidase can effectively and specifically generate minor ginsenosides. This paper summarizes the probable bioconversion mechanisms of two protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT) types. Other high-efficiency and high-value bioconversion processes using complete proteins isolated from bacterial biomass or recombinant enzymes are also discussed in this article. This paper also discusses the various conversion and analysis methods and their potential applications. Overall, this paper offers theoretical and technical foundations for future studies that will be both scientifically and economically significant.

Comparative functional analysis of PdeNAC2 and AtVND6 in the tracheary element formation.

Tracheary elements (i.e. vessel elements and tracheids) are highly specialized, non-living cells present in the water-conducting xylem tissue. In angiosperms, proteins in the VASCULAR-RELATED NAC-DOMAIN (VND) subgroup of the NAC (NAM, ATAF1,2, and CUC2) transcription factor family (e.g. AtVND6) are required for the differentiation of vessel elements through transcriptional regulation of genes responsible for secondary cell wall formation and programmed cell death. Gymnosperms, however, produce only tracheids, the mechanism of which remains elusive. Here, we report functional characteristics of PdeNAC2, a VND homolog in Pinus densiflora, as a key regulator of tracheid formation. Interestingly, our molecular genetic analyses show that PdeNAC2 can induce the formation of vessel element-like cells in angiosperm plants, demonstrated by transgenic overexpression of either native or NAC domain-swapped synthetic genes of PdeNAC2 and AtVND6 in both Arabidopsis and hybrid poplar. Subsequently, genome-wide identification of direct target (DT) genes of PdeNAC2 and AtVND6 revealed 138 and 174 genes as putative DTs, respectively, but only 17 genes were identified as common DTs. Further analyses have found that PdeNAC2 does not control some AtVND6-dependent vessel differentiation genes in angiosperm plants, such as AtVRLK1, LBD15/30 and pit-forming Rho-like GTPases from plant (ROP) signaling genes. Collectively, our results suggest that different target gene repertoires of PdeNAC2 and AtVND6 may contribute to the evolution of tracheary elements.

SNF1-related protein kinase 1 represses Arabidopsis growth through post-translational modification of E2Fa in response to energy stress.

Cellular sugar starvation and/or energy deprivation serves as an important signaling cue for the live cells to trigger the necessary stress adaptation response. When exposed to cellular energy stress (ES) conditions, the plants reconfigure metabolic pathways and rebalance energy status while restricting vegetative organ growth. Despite the vital importance of this ES-induced growth restriction, the regulatory mechanism underlying the response remains largely elusive in plants. Using plant cell- and whole plant-based functional analyses coupled with extended genetic validation, we show that cellular ES-activated SNF1-related protein kinase 1 (SnRK1.1) directly interacts with and phosphorylates E2Fa transcription factor, a critical cell cycle regulator. Phosphorylation of E2Fa by SnRK1.1 leads to its proteasome-mediated protein degradation, resulting in S-phase repression and organ growth restriction. Our findings show that ES-dependently activated SnRK1.1 adjusts cell proliferation and vegetative growth for plants to cope with constantly fluctuating environments.

Current Understanding of the Genetics and Molecular Mechanisms Regulating Wood Formation in Plants.

Unlike herbaceous plants, woody plants undergo volumetric growth (a.k.a. secondary growth) through wood formation, during which the secondary xylem (i.e., wood) differentiates from the vascular cambium. Wood is the most abundant biomass on Earth and, by absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide, functions as one of the largest carbon sinks. As a sustainable and eco-friendly energy source, lignocellulosic biomass can help address environmental pollution and the global climate crisis. Studies of Arabidopsis and poplar as model plants using various emerging research tools show that the formation and proliferation of the vascular cambium and the differentiation of xylem cells require the modulation of multiple signals, including plant hormones, transcription factors, and signaling peptides. In this review, we summarize the latest knowledge on the molecular mechanism of wood formation, one of the most important biological processes on Earth.

Nuclear Translocation of Soybean MPK6, GmMPK6, Is Mediated by Hydrogen Peroxide in Salt Stress.

The plant mitogen-activated protein kinase (MPK) cascade, a highly conserved signal transduction system in eukaryotes, plays a crucial role in the plant's response to environmental stimuli and phytohormones. It is well-known that nuclear translocation of MPKs is necessary for their activities in mammalian cells. However, the mechanism underlying nuclear translocation of plant MPKs is not well elucidated. In the previous study, it has been shown that soybean MPK6 (GmMPK6) is activated by phosphatidic acid (PA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which are two signaling molecules generated during salt stress. Using the two signaling molecules, we investigated how salt stress triggers its translocation to the nucleus. Our results show that the translocation of GmMPK6 to the nucleus is mediated by H2O2, but not by PA. Furthermore, the translocation was interrupted by diphenylene iodonium (DPI) (an inhibitor of RBOH), confirming that H2O2 is the signaling molecule for the nuclear translocation of GmMPK6 during salt stress.

Field evaluation of transgenic hybrid poplars with desirable wood properties and enhanced growth for biofuel production by bicistronic expression of PdGA20ox1 and PtrMYB3 in wood-forming tissue.

BACKGROUND: To create an ideotype woody bioenergy crop with desirable growth and biomass properties, we utilized the viral 2A-meidated bicistronic expression strategy to express both PtrMYB3 (MYB46 ortholog of Populus trichocarpa, a master regulator of secondary wall biosynthesis) and PdGA20ox1 (a GA20-oxidase from Pinus densiflora that produces gibberellins) in wood-forming tissue (i.e., developing xylem). RESULTS: Transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing the gene construct DX15::PdGA20ox1-2A-PtrMYB3 showed a significant increase in both stem fresh weight (threefold) and secondary wall thickening (1.27-fold) relative to wild-type (WT) plants. Transgenic poplars harboring the same gene construct grown in a greenhouse for 60 days had a stem fresh weight up to 2.6-fold greater than that of WT plants. In a living modified organism (LMO) field test conducted for 3 months of active growing season, the stem height and diameter growth of the transgenic poplars were 1.7- and 1.6-fold higher than those of WT plants, respectively, with minimal adverse growth defects. Although no significant changes in secondary wall thickening of the stem tissue of the transgenic poplars were observed, cellulose content was increased up to 14.4 wt% compared to WT, resulting in improved saccharification efficiency of the transgenic poplars. Moreover, enhanced woody biomass production by the transgenic poplars was further validated by re-planting in the same LMO field for additional two growing seasons. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results show considerably enhanced wood formation of our transgenic poplars, with improved wood quality for biofuel production.

CRISPR-Knockout of CSE Gene Improves Saccharification Efficiency by Reducing Lignin Content in Hybrid Poplar.

Caffeoyl shikimate esterase (CSE) has been shown to play an important role in lignin biosynthesis in plants and is, therefore, a promising target for generating improved lignocellulosic biomass crops for sustainable biofuel production. Populus spp. has two CSE genes (CSE1 and CSE2) and, thus, the hybrid poplar (Populus alba × P. glandulosa) investigated in this study has four CSE genes. Here, we present transgenic hybrid poplars with knockouts of each CSE gene achieved by CRISPR/Cas9. To knockout the CSE genes of the hybrid poplar, we designed three single guide RNAs (sg1-sg3), and produced three different transgenic poplars with either CSE1 (CSE1-sg2), CSE2 (CSE2-sg3), or both genes (CSE1/2-sg1) mutated. CSE1-sg2 and CSE2-sg3 poplars showed up to 29.1% reduction in lignin deposition with irregularly shaped xylem vessels. However, CSE1-sg2 and CSE2-sg3 poplars were morphologically indistinguishable from WT and showed no significant differences in growth in a long-term living modified organism (LMO) field-test covering four seasons. Gene expression analysis revealed that many lignin biosynthetic genes were downregulated in CSE1-sg2 and CSE2-sg3 poplars. Indeed, the CSE1-sg2 and CSE2-sg3 poplars had up to 25% higher saccharification efficiency than the WT control. Our results demonstrate that precise editing of CSE by CRISPR/Cas9 technology can improve lignocellulosic biomass without a growth penalty.

Efficient knockout of the phytoene desaturase gene in a hybrid poplar (Populus alba × Populus glandulosa) using the CRISPR/Cas9 system with a single gRNA.

The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been used for genome editing in several plant species; however, there are few reports on its use in trees. Here, CRISPR/Cas9 was used to mutate a target gene in Populus alba × Populus glandulosa hybrid poplars. The hybrid poplar is routinely used in molecular biological studies due to the well-established Agrobacterium-mediated transformation method. A single guide RNA (sgRNA) with reported high mutation efficiency in other popular species was designed with a protospacer adjacent motif sequence for the phytoene desaturase 1 (PagPDS1) gene. The pHSE/Cas9-PagPDS1 sgRNA vector was delivered into hybrid poplar cells using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The transgenic plants were propagated and classified them into three groups according to their phenotypes. Among a total of 110 lines of transgenic hybrid poplars, 82 lines showed either an albino or a pale green phenotype, indicating around 74.5% phenotypic mutation efficiency of the PagPDS1 gene. The albino phenotypes were observed when the CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutations in both PagPDS1 alleles in the transgenic plants. There was no off-target modification of the PagPDS2 gene, which has a potential sgRNA target sequence with two mismatches. The results confirmed that the sgRNA can specifically edit PagPDS1 rather than PagPDS2, indicating that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing can effectively induce target mutations in the hybrid poplar. This technique will be useful to improve tree quality in hybrid poplars (P. alba × P. glandulosa); for example, by enhancing biomass or stress tolerance.

PtrMYB120 functions as a positive regulator of both anthocyanin and lignin biosynthetic pathway in a hybrid poplar.

Both anthocyanins and lignins are essential secondary metabolites in plant growth and development. Their biosynthesis is metabolically interconnected and diverges in the central metabolite 4-coumaroyl CoA of the phenylpropanoid pathway. Considerable progress has been made in understanding transcriptional regulation of genes involved in lignin and anthocyanin synthesis pathways, but the concerted regulation of these pathways is not yet fully understood. Here, we functionally characterized PtrMYB120, a R2R3-MYB transcription factor from Populus trichocarpa. Overexpression of PtrMYB120 in a hybrid poplar (i.e., 35S::PtrMYB120) was associated with increased anthocyanin (i.e., cyanidin 3-O-glucoside) accumulation and upregulation of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes. However, transgenic poplars with dominant suppression of PtrMYB120 function achieved by fusing the ERF-associated amphiphilic repression motif to PtrMYB120 (i.e., 35S::PtrMYB120-SRDX) had a dramatic decrease in not only anthocyanin but also Klason lignin content with downregulation of both anthocyanin and lignin biosynthetic genes. Indeed, 35S::PtrMYB120-SRDX poplars had irregularly shaped xylem vessels with reduced S-lignin content in stems, which was proportionally related to the level of the introduced PtrMYB120-SRDX gene. Furthermore, protoplast-based transcriptional activation assay using the PtrMYB120-GR system suggested that PtrMYB120 directly regulates genes involved in both anthocyanin and lignin biosynthesis, including chalcone synthase and ferulate-5 hydroxylase. Interestingly, the saccharification efficiency of line #6 of 35S::PtrMYB120-SRDX poplars, which had slightly reduced lignin content with a normal growth phenotype, was dramatically enhanced (>45%) by NaOH treatment. Taken together, our results suggest that PtrMYB120 functions as a positive regulator of both anthocyanin and lignin biosynthetic pathways and can be targeted to enhance saccharification efficiency in woody perennials.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase 6 negatively regulates secondary wall biosynthesis by modulating MYB46 protein stability in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The R2R3-MYB transcription factor MYB46 functions as a master switch for secondary cell wall biosynthesis, ensuring the exquisite expression of the secondary wall biosynthetic genes in the tissues where secondary walls are critical for growth and development. At the same time, suppression of its function is needed when/where formation of secondary walls is not desirable. Little is known about how this opposing control of secondary cell wall formation is achieved. We used both transient and transgenic expression of MYB46 and mitogen-activated protein kinase 6 (MPK6) to investigate the molecular mechanism of the post-translational regulation of MYB46. We show that MYB46 is phosphorylated by MPK6, leading to site specific phosphorylation-dependent degradation of MYB46 by the ubiquitin-mediated proteasome pathway. In addition, the MPK6-mediated MYB46 phosphorylation was found to regulate in planta secondary wall forming function of MYB46. Furthermore, we provide experimental evidences that MYB83, a paralog of MYB46, is not regulated by MPK6. The coupling of MPK signaling to MYB46 function provides insights into the tissue- and/or condition-specific activity of MYB46 for secondary wall biosynthesis.

Wood transcriptome analysis of Pinus densiflora identifies genes critical for secondary cell wall formation and NAC transcription factors involved in tracheid formation.

Although conifers have significant ecological and economic value, information on transcriptional regulation of wood formation in conifers is still limited. Here, to gain insight into secondary cell wall (SCW) biosynthesis and tracheid formation in conifers, we performed wood tissue-specific transcriptome analyses of Pinus densiflora (Korean red pine) using RNA sequencing. In addition, to obtain full-length transcriptome information, PacBio single molecule real-time iso-sequencing was carried out using RNAs from 28 tissues of P. densiflora. Subsequent comparative tissue-specific transcriptome analysis successfully pinpointed critical genes encoding key proteins involved in biosynthesis of the major secondary wall components (cellulose, galactoglucomannan, xylan and lignin). Furthermore, we predicted a total of 62 NAC (NAM, ATAF1/2 and CUC2) family transcription factor members and identified seven PdeNAC genes preferentially expressed in developing xylem tissues in P. densiflora. Protoplast-based transcriptional activation analysis found that four PdeNAC genes, homologous to VND, NST and SND/ANAC075, upregulated GUS activity driven by an SCW-specific cellulose synthase promoter. Consistently, transient overexpression of the four PdeNACs induced xylem vessel cell-like SCW deposition in both tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) and Arabidopsis leaves. Taken together, our data provide a foundation for further research to unravel transcriptional regulation of wood formation in conifers, especially SCW formation and tracheid differentiation.

Overexpression of a Poplar RING-H2 Zinc Finger, Ptxerico, Confers Enhanced Drought Tolerance via Reduced Water Loss and Ion Leakage in Populus.

Drought stress is one of the major environmental problems in the growth of crops and woody perennials, but it is getting worse due to the global climate crisis. XERICO, a RING (Really Interesting New Gene) zinc-finger E3 ubiquitin ligase, has been shown to be a positive regulator of drought tolerance in plants through the control of abscisic acid (ABA) homeostasis. We characterized a poplar (Populus trichocarpa) RING protein family and identified the closest homolog of XERICO called PtXERICO. Expression of PtXERICO is induced by both salt and drought stress, and by ABA treatment in poplars. Overexpression of PtXERICO in Arabidopsis confers salt and ABA hypersensitivity in young seedlings, and enhances drought tolerance by decreasing transpirational water loss. Consistently, transgenic hybrid poplars overexpressing PtXERICO demonstrate enhanced drought tolerance with reduced transpirational water loss and ion leakage. Subsequent upregulation of genes involved in the ABA homeostasis and drought response was confirmed in both transgenic Arabidopsis and poplars. Taken together, our results suggest that PtXERICO will serve as a focal point to improve drought tolerance of woody perennials.

Overexpression of Populus transcription factor PtrTALE12 increases axillary shoot development by regulating WUSCHEL expression.

The TALE (Three Amino acid Loop Extension) transcription factor family has been shown to control meristem formation and organogenesis in plants. To understand the functional roles of the TALE family in woody perennials, each of the TALE members of Populus trichocarpa was overexpressed in Arabidopsis as a proxy. Among them, the overexpression of PtrTALE12 (i.e., 35S::PtrTALE12) resulted in a dramatic increase of axillary shoot development with early flowering. Interestingly, expression of WUSCHEL (WUS), a central regulator of both apical and axillary meristem formation, was significantly increased in the 35S::PtrTALE12 Arabidopsis plants. Conversely, WUS expression was downregulated in 35S::PtrTALE12-SRDX (short transcriptional repressor domain) plants. Further analysis found that PtrTALE12, expressed preferentially in meristem tissues, directly regulates WUS expression in transient activation assays using Arabidopsis leaf protoplast. Yeast two-hybrid assays showed that PtrTALE12 interacts with SHOOT MERISTEMLESS (STM); however, the interaction does not affect the WUS expression. In addition, expression of both CIRCADIAN CLOCK ASSOCIATED1 (CCA1) and LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL (LHY) genes was suppressed accordingly for early flowering 35S::PtrTALE12 Arabidopsis. Indeed, transgenic poplars overexpressing PtrTALE12 as well as Arabidopsis plants overexpressing AtBLH11, a close homolog of PtrTALE12, phenocopied the 35S::PtrTALE12 Arabidopsis (i.e., increased axillary shoot development). Taken together, our results suggest that PtrTALE12 functions as a positive regulator of axillary shoot formation in both Arabidopsis and poplar.

Wood Transcriptome Profiling Identifies Critical Pathway Genes of Secondary Wall Biosynthesis and Novel Regulators for Vascular Cambium Development in Populus.

Wood, the most abundant biomass on Earth, is composed of secondary xylem differentiated from vascular cambium. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of wood formation remain largely unclear. To gain insight into wood formation, we performed a series of wood-forming tissue-specific transcriptome analyses from a hybrid poplar (Populus alba × P. glandulosa, clone BH) using RNA-seq. Together with shoot apex and leaf tissue, cambium and xylem tissues were isolated from vertical stem segments representing a gradient of secondary growth developmental stages (i.e., immature, intermediate, and mature stem). In a comparative transcriptome analysis of the 'developing xylem' and 'leaf' tissue, we could identify critical players catalyzing each biosynthetic step of secondary wall components (e.g., cellulose, xylan, and lignin). Several candidate genes involved in the initiation of vascular cambium formation were found via a co-expression network analysis using abundantly expressed genes in the 'intermediate stem-derived cambium' tissue. We found that transgenic Arabidopsis plants overexpressing the PtrHAM4-1, a GRAS family transcription factor, resulted in a significant increase of vascular cambium development. This phenotype was successfully reproduced in the transgenic poplars overexpressing the PtrHAM4-1. Taken together, our results may serve as a springboard for further research to unravel the molecular mechanism of wood formation, one of the most important biological processes on this planet.

A Convenient Plant-Based Detection System to Monitor Androgenic Compound in the Environment.

Environmental androgen analogues act as endocrine disruptors, which inhibit the normal function of androgen in animals. In the present work, through the expression of a chimeric gene specified for the production of the anthocyanin in response to androgen DHT (dihydrotestosterone), we generated an indicator Arabidopsis that displays a red color in leaves in the presence of androgen compounds. This construct consists of a ligand-binding domain of the human androgen receptor gene and the poplar transcription factor gene PtrMYB119, which is involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in poplar and Arabidopsis. The transgenic Arabidopsis XVA-PtrMYB119 displayed a red color in leaves in response to 10 ppm DHT, whereas it did not react in the presence of other androgenic compounds. The transcript level of PtrMYB119 peaked at day 13 of DHT exposure on agar media and then declined to its normal level at day 15. Expressions of anthocyanin biosynthesis genes including chalcone flavanone isomerase, chalcone synthase, flavanone 3-hydroxylase, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, UFGT (UGT78D2), and anthocyanidin synthase were similar to that of PtrMYB119. It is assumed that this transgenic plant can be used by nonscientists for the detection of androgen DHT in the environment and samples such as food solution without any experimental procedures.

Wood forming tissue-specific bicistronic expression of PdGA20ox1 and PtrMYB221 improves both the quality and quantity of woody biomass production in a hybrid poplar.

With the exponential growth of the human population and industrial developments, research on renewable energy resources is required to alleviate environmental and economic impacts caused by the consumption of fossil fuels. In this study, we present a synthetic biological application of a wood forming tissue-specific bicistronic gene expression system to improve both the quantity and quality of woody biomass to minimize undesirable growth penalties. Our transgenic poplars, designed to express both PdGA20ox1 (a GA20-oxidase from Pinus densiflora producing bioactive gibberellin, GA) and PtrMYB221 (a MYB transcription factor negatively regulating lignin biosynthesis) under the developing xylem (DX) tissue-specific promoter (i.e., DX15::PdGA20ox1-2A-PtrMYB221 poplar), resulted in a 2-fold increase in biomass quantity compared to wild-type (WT), without undesirable growth defects. A similar phenotype was observed in transgenic Arabidopsis plants harboring the same gene constructs. These phenotypic consequences were further verified in the field experiments. Importantly, our transgenic poplars exhibited an improved quality of biomass with reduced lignin content (~16.0 wt%) but increased holocellulose content (~6.6 wt%). Furthermore, the saccharification efficiency of our transgenic poplar increased significantly by up to 8%. Our results demonstrate that the controlled production of both GA and a secondary wall modifying regulator in the same spatio-temporal manner can be utilized as an efficient biotechnological tool for producing the desired multi-purpose woody biomass.