Spatial mapping of mitochondrial networks and bioenergetics in lung cancer.

Mitochondria are critical to the governance of metabolism and bioenergetics in cancer cells1. The mitochondria form highly organized networks, in which their outer and inner membrane structures define their bioenergetic capacity2,3. However, in vivo studies delineating the relationship between the structural organization of mitochondrial networks and their bioenergetic activity have been limited. Here we present an in vivo structural and functional analysis of mitochondrial networks and bioenergetic phenotypes in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) using an integrated platform consisting of positron emission tomography imaging, respirometry and three-dimensional scanning block-face electron microscopy. The diverse bioenergetic phenotypes and metabolic dependencies we identified in NSCLC tumours align with distinct structural organization of mitochondrial networks present. Further, we discovered that mitochondrial networks are organized into distinct compartments within tumour cells. In tumours with high rates of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOSHI) and fatty acid oxidation, we identified peri-droplet mitochondrial networks wherein mitochondria contact and surround lipid droplets. By contrast, we discovered that in tumours with low rates of OXPHOS (OXPHOSLO), high glucose flux regulated perinuclear localization of mitochondria, structural remodelling of cristae and mitochondrial respiratory capacity. Our findings suggest that in NSCLC, mitochondrial networks are compartmentalized into distinct subpopulations that govern the bioenergetic capacity of tumours.

Structural basis for the mechanisms of human presequence protease conformational switch and substrate recognition.

Presequence protease (PreP), a 117 kDa mitochondrial M16C metalloprotease vital for mitochondrial proteostasis, degrades presequence peptides cleaved off from nuclear-encoded proteins and other aggregation-prone peptides, such as amyloid ß (Aß). PreP structures have only been determined in a closed conformation; thus, the mechanisms of substrate binding and selectivity remain elusive. Here, we leverage advanced vitrification techniques to overcome the preferential denaturation of one of two ~55 kDa homologous domains of PreP caused by air-water interface adsorption. Thereby, we elucidate cryoEM structures of three apo-PreP open states along with Aß- and citrate synthase presequence-bound PreP at 3.3-4.6 Å resolution. Together with integrative biophysical and pharmacological approaches, these structures reveal the key stages of the PreP catalytic cycle and how the binding of substrates or PreP inhibitor drives a rigid body motion of the protein for substrate binding and catalysis. Together, our studies provide key mechanistic insights into M16C metalloproteases for future therapeutic innovations.

Aim32 is a dual-localized 2Fe-2S mitochondrial protein that functions in redox quality control.

Yeast is a facultative anaerobe and uses diverse electron acceptors to maintain redox-regulated import of cysteine-rich precursors via the mitochondrial intermembrane space assembly (MIA) pathway. With the growing diversity of substrates utilizing the MIA pathway, understanding the capacity of the intermembrane space (IMS) to handle different types of stress is crucial. We used MS to identify additional proteins that interacted with the sulfhydryl oxidase Erv1 of the MIA pathway. Altered inheritance of mitochondria 32 (Aim32), a thioredoxin-like [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin protein, was identified as an Erv1-binding protein. Detailed localization studies showed that Aim32 resided in both the mitochondrial matrix and IMS. Aim32 interacted with additional proteins including redox protein Osm1 and protein import components Tim17, Tim23, and Tim22. Deletion of Aim32 or mutation of conserved cysteine residues that coordinate the Fe-S center in Aim32 resulted in an increased accumulation of proteins with aberrant disulfide linkages. In addition, the steady-state level of assembled TIM22, TIM23, and Oxa1 protein import complexes was decreased. Aim32 also bound to several mitochondrial proteins under nonreducing conditions, suggesting a function in maintaining the redox status of proteins by potentially targeting cysteine residues that may be sensitive to oxidation. Finally, Aim32 was essential for growth in conditions of stress such as elevated temperature and hydroxyurea, and under anaerobic conditions. These studies suggest that the Fe-S protein Aim32 has a potential role in general redox homeostasis in the matrix and IMS. Thus, Aim32 may be poised as a sensor or regulator in quality control for a broad range of mitochondrial proteins.

Publisher Correction: In vivo imaging of mitochondrial membrane potential in non-small-cell lung cancer.

An Amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

In vivo imaging of mitochondrial membrane potential in non-small-cell lung cancer.

Mitochondria are essential regulators of cellular energy and metabolism, and have a crucial role in sustaining the growth and survival of cancer cells. A central function of mitochondria is the synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, known as mitochondrial bioenergetics. Mitochondria maintain oxidative phosphorylation by creating a membrane potential gradient that is generated by the electron transport chain to drive the synthesis of ATP1. Mitochondria are essential for tumour initiation and maintaining tumour cell growth in cell culture and xenografts2,3. However, our understanding of oxidative mitochondrial metabolism in cancer is limited because most studies have been performed in vitro in cell culture models. This highlights a need for in vivo studies to better understand how oxidative metabolism supports tumour growth. Here we measure mitochondrial membrane potential in non-small-cell lung cancer in vivo using a voltage-sensitive, positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer known as 4-[18F]fluorobenzyl-triphenylphosphonium (18F-BnTP)4. By using PET imaging of 18F-BnTP, we profile mitochondrial membrane potential in autochthonous mouse models of lung cancer, and find distinct functional mitochondrial heterogeneity within subtypes of lung tumours. The use of 18F-BnTP PET imaging enabled us to functionally profile mitochondrial membrane potential in live tumours.

FAM210B is an erythropoietin target and regulates erythroid heme synthesis by controlling mitochondrial iron import and ferrochelatase activity.

Erythropoietin (EPO) signaling is critical to many processes essential to terminal erythropoiesis. Despite the centrality of iron metabolism to erythropoiesis, the mechanisms by which EPO regulates iron status are not well-understood. To this end, here we profiled gene expression in EPO-treated 32D pro-B cells and developing fetal liver erythroid cells to identify additional iron regulatory genes. We determined that FAM210B, a mitochondrial inner-membrane protein, is essential for hemoglobinization, proliferation, and enucleation during terminal erythroid maturation. Fam210b deficiency led to defects in mitochondrial iron uptake, heme synthesis, and iron-sulfur cluster formation. These defects were corrected with a lipid-soluble, small-molecule iron transporter, hinokitiol, in Fam210b-deficient murine erythroid cells and zebrafish morphants. Genetic complementation experiments revealed that FAM210B is not a mitochondrial iron transporter but is required for adequate mitochondrial iron import to sustain heme synthesis and iron-sulfur cluster formation during erythroid differentiation. FAM210B was also required for maximal ferrochelatase activity in differentiating erythroid cells. We propose that FAM210B functions as an adaptor protein that facilitates the formation of an oligomeric mitochondrial iron transport complex, required for the increase in iron acquisition for heme synthesis during terminal erythropoiesis. Collectively, our results reveal a critical mechanism by which EPO signaling regulates terminal erythropoiesis and iron metabolism.

PNPase knockout results in mtDNA loss and an altered metabolic gene expression program.

Polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase) is an essential mitochondria-localized exoribonuclease implicated in multiple biological processes and human disorders. To reveal role(s) for PNPase in mitochondria, we established PNPase knockout (PKO) systems by first shifting culture conditions to enable cell growth with defective respiration. Interestingly, PKO established in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) resulted in the loss of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The transcriptional profile of PKO cells was similar to rho0 mtDNA deleted cells, with perturbations in cholesterol (FDR = 6.35 x 10-13), lipid (FDR = 3.21 x 10-11), and secondary alcohol (FDR = 1.04x10-12) metabolic pathway gene expression compared to wild type parental (TM6) MEFs. Transcriptome analysis indicates processes related to axonogenesis (FDR = 4.49 x 10-3), axon development (FDR = 4.74 x 10-3), and axonal guidance (FDR = 4.74 x 10-3) were overrepresented in PKO cells, consistent with previous studies detailing causative PNPase mutations in delayed myelination, hearing loss, encephalomyopathy, and chorioretinal defects in humans. Overrepresentation analysis revealed alterations in metabolic pathways in both PKO and rho0 cells. Therefore, we assessed the correlation of genes implicated in cell cycle progression and total metabolism and observed a strong positive correlation between PKO cells and rho0 MEFs compared to TM6 MEFs. We quantified the normalized biomass accumulation rate of PKO clones at 1.7% (SD ± 2.0%) and 2.4% (SD ± 1.6%) per hour, which was lower than TM6 cells at 3.3% (SD ± 3.5%) per hour. Furthermore, PKO in mouse inner ear hair cells caused progressive hearing loss that parallels human familial hearing loss previously linked to mutations in PNPase. Combined, our study reports that knockout of a mitochondrial nuclease results in mtDNA loss and suggests that mtDNA maintenance could provide a unifying connection for the large number of biological activities reported for PNPase.

ER-mitochondria contacts: Actin dynamics at the ER control mitochondrial fission via calcium release.

The formin-like protein INF2 is an important player in the polymerization of actin filaments. In this issue, Chakrabarti et al. (2018. J. Cell Biol. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201709111) demonstrate that INF2 mediates actin polymerization at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), resulting in increased ER-mitochondria contacts, calcium uptake by mitochondria, and mitochondrial division.

Stendomycin selectively inhibits TIM23-dependent mitochondrial protein import.

Tim17 and Tim23 are the main subunits of the TIM23 complex, one of the two major essential mitochondrial inner-membrane protein translocon machineries (TIMs). No chemical probes that specifically inhibit TIM23-dependent protein import were known to exist. Here we show that the natural product stendomycin, produced by Streptomyces hygroscopicus, is a potent and specific inhibitor of the TIM23 complex in yeast and mammalian cells. Furthermore, stendomycin-mediated blockage of the TIM23 complex does not alter normal processing of the major regulatory mitophagy kinase PINK1, but TIM23 is required to stabilize PINK1 on the outside of mitochondria to initiate mitophagy upon membrane depolarization.

Atomic structure of a toxic, oligomeric segment of SOD1 linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

Fibrils and oligomers are the aggregated protein agents of neuronal dysfunction in ALS diseases. Whereas we now know much about fibril architecture, atomic structures of disease-related oligomers have eluded determination. Here, we determine the corkscrew-like structure of a cytotoxic segment of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) in its oligomeric state. Mutations that prevent formation of this structure eliminate cytotoxicity of the segment in isolation as well as cytotoxicity of the ALS-linked mutants of SOD1 in primary motor neurons and in a Danio rerio (zebrafish) model of ALS. Cytotoxicity assays suggest that toxicity is a property of soluble oligomers, and not large insoluble aggregates. Our work adds to evidence that the toxic oligomeric entities in protein aggregation diseases contain antiparallel, out-of-register ß-sheet structures and identifies a target for structure-based therapeutics in ALS.

Osm1 facilitates the transfer of electrons from Erv1 to fumarate in the redox-regulated import pathway in the mitochondrial intermembrane space.

Prokaryotes have aerobic and anaerobic electron acceptors for oxidative folding of periplasmic proteins. The mitochondrial intermembrane space has an analogous pathway with the oxidoreductase Mia40 and sulfhydryl oxidase Erv1, termed the mitochondrial intermembrane space assembly (MIA) pathway. The aerobic electron acceptors include oxygen and cytochrome c, but an acceptor that can function under anaerobic conditions has not been identified. Here we show that the fumarate reductase Osm1, which facilitates electron transfer from fumarate to succinate, fills this gap as a new electron acceptor. In addition to microsomes, Osm1 localizes to the mitochondrial intermembrane space and assembles with Erv1 in a complex. In reconstitution studies with reduced Tim13, Mia40, and Erv1, the addition of Osm1 and fumarate completes the disulfide exchange pathway that results in Tim13 oxidation. From in vitro import assays, mitochondria lacking Osm1 display decreased import of MIA substrates, Cmc1 and Tim10. Comparative reconstitution assays support that the Osm1/fumarate couple accepts electrons with similar efficiency to cytochrome c and that the cell has strategies to coordinate expression of the terminal electron acceptors. Thus Osm1/fumarate is a new electron acceptor couple in the mitochondrial intermembrane space that seems to function in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Repurposing Approach Identifies Auranofin with Broad Spectrum Antifungal Activity That Targets Mia40-Erv1 Pathway.

Current antifungal therapies have limited effectiveness in treating invasive fungal infections. Furthermore, the development of new antifungal is currently unable to keep pace with the urgent demand for safe and effective new drugs. Auranofin, an FDA-approved drug for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, inhibits growth of a diverse array of clinical isolates of fungi and represents a new antifungal agent with a previously unexploited mechanism of action. In addition to auranofin's potent antifungal activity against planktonic fungi, this drug significantly reduces the metabolic activity of Candida cells encased in a biofilm. Unbiased chemogenomic profiling, using heterozygous S. cerevisiae deletion strains, combined with growth assays revealed three probable targets for auranofin's antifungal activity-mia40, acn9, and coa4. Mia40 is of particular interest given its essential role in oxidation of cysteine rich proteins imported into the mitochondria. Biochemical analysis confirmed auranofin targets the Mia40-Erv1 pathway as the drug inhibited Mia40 from interacting with its substrate, Cmc1, in a dose-dependent manner similar to the control, MB-7. Furthermore, yeast mitochondria overexpressing Erv1 were shown to exhibit resistance to auranofin as an increase in Cmc1 import was observed compared to wild-type yeast. Further in vivo antifungal activity of auranofin was examined in a Caenorhabditis elegans animal model of Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Auranofin significantly reduced the fungal load in infected C. elegans. Collectively, the present study provides valuable evidence that auranofin has significant promise to be repurposed as a novel antifungal agent and may offer a safe, effective, and quick supplement to current approaches for treating fungal infections.

Adaptation of a Genetic Screen Reveals an Inhibitor for Mitochondrial Protein Import Component Tim44.

Diverse protein import pathways into mitochondria use translocons on the outer membrane (TOM) and inner membrane (TIM). We adapted a genetic screen, based on Ura3 mistargeting from mitochondria to the cytosol, to identify small molecules that attenuated protein import. Small molecule mitochondrial import blockers of the Carla Koehler laboratory (MB)-10 inhibited import of substrates that require the TIM23 translocon. Mutational analysis coupled with molecular docking and molecular dynamics modeling revealed that MB-10 binds to a specific pocket in the C-terminal domain of Tim44 of the protein-associated motor (PAM) complex. This region was proposed to anchor Tim44 to the membrane, but biochemical studies with MB-10 show that this region is required for binding to the translocating precursor and binding to mtHsp70 in low ATP conditions. This study also supports a direct role for the PAM complex in the import of substrates that are laterally sorted to the inner membrane, as well as the mitochondrial matrix. Thus, MB-10 is the first small molecule modulator to attenuate PAM complex activity, likely through binding to the C-terminal region of Tim44.

Rapid degradation of mutant SLC25A46 by the ubiquitin-proteasome system results in MFN1/2-mediated hyperfusion of mitochondria.

SCL25A46 is a mitochondrial carrier protein that surprisingly localizes to the outer membrane and is distantly related to Ugo1. Here we show that a subset of SLC25A46 interacts with mitochondrial dynamics components and the MICOS complex. Decreased expression of SLC25A46 results in increased stability and oligomerization of MFN1 and MFN2 on mitochondria, promoting mitochondrial hyperfusion. A mutation at L341P causes rapid degradation of SLC25A46, which manifests as a rare disease, pontocerebellar hypoplasia. The E3 ubiquitin ligases MULAN and MARCH5 coordinate ubiquitylation of SLC25A46 L341P, leading to degradation by organized activities of P97 and the proteasome. Whereas outer mitochondrial membrane-associated degradation is typically associated with apoptosis or a specialized type of autophagy termed mitophagy, SLC25A46 degradation operates independently of activation of outer membrane stress pathways. Thus SLC25A46 is a new component in mitochondrial dynamics that serves as a regulator for MFN1/2 oligomerization. Moreover, SLC25A46 is selectively degraded from the outer membrane independently of mitophagy and apoptosis, providing a framework for mechanistic studies in the proteolysis of outer membrane proteins.

Loss of function of SLC25A46 causes lethal congenital pontocerebellar hypoplasia.

Disturbed mitochondrial fusion and fission have been linked to various neurodegenerative disorders. In siblings from two unrelated families who died soon after birth with a profound neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by pontocerebellar hypoplasia and apnoea, we discovered a missense mutation and an exonic deletion in the SLC25A46 gene encoding a mitochondrial protein recently implicated in optic atrophy spectrum disorder. We performed functional studies that confirmed the mitochondrial localization and pro-fission properties of SLC25A46. Knockdown of slc24a46 expression in zebrafish embryos caused brain malformation, spinal motor neuron loss, and poor motility. At the cellular level, we observed abnormally elongated mitochondria, which was rescued by co-injection of the wild-type but not the mutant slc25a46 mRNA. Conversely, overexpression of the wild-type protein led to mitochondrial fragmentation and disruption of the mitochondrial network. In contrast to mutations causing non-lethal optic atrophy, missense mutations causing lethal congenital pontocerebellar hypoplasia markedly destabilize the protein. Indeed, the clinical severity appears inversely correlated with the relative stability of the mutant protein. This genotype-phenotype correlation underscores the importance of SLC25A46 and fine tuning of mitochondrial fission and fusion in pontocerebellar hypoplasia and central neurodevelopment in addition to optic and peripheral neuropathy across the life span.

Mitochondrial Transfer by Photothermal Nanoblade Restores Metabolite Profile in Mammalian Cells.

mtDNA sequence alterations are challenging to generate but desirable for basic studies and potential correction of mtDNA diseases. Here, we report a new method for transferring isolated mitochondria into somatic mammalian cells using a photothermal nanoblade, which bypasses endocytosis and cell fusion. The nanoblade rescued the pyrimidine auxotroph phenotype and respiration of ρ0 cells that lack mtDNA. Three stable isogenic nanoblade-rescued clones grown in uridine-free medium showed distinct bioenergetics profiles. Rescue lines 1 and 3 reestablished nucleus-encoded anapleurotic and catapleurotic enzyme gene expression patterns and had metabolite profiles similar to the parent cells from which the ρ0 recipient cells were derived. By contrast, rescue line 2 retained a ρ0 cell metabolic phenotype despite growth in uridine-free selection. The known influence of metabolite levels on cellular processes, including epigenome modifications and gene expression, suggests metabolite profiling can help assess the quality and function of mtDNA-modified cells.

Defining functional classes of Barth syndrome mutation in humans.

The X-linked disease Barth syndrome (BTHS) is caused by mutations in TAZ; TAZ is the main determinant of the final acyl chain composition of the mitochondrial-specific phospholipid, cardiolipin. To date, a detailed characterization of endogenous TAZ has only been performed in yeast. Further, why a given BTHS-associated missense mutation impairs TAZ function has only been determined in a yeast model of this human disease. Presently, the detailed characterization of yeast tafazzin harboring individual BTHS mutations at evolutionarily conserved residues has identified seven distinct loss-of-function mechanisms caused by patient-associated missense alleles. However, whether the biochemical consequences associated with individual mutations also occur in the context of human TAZ in a validated mammalian model has not been demonstrated. Here, utilizing newly established monoclonal antibodies capable of detecting endogenous TAZ, we demonstrate that mammalian TAZ, like its yeast counterpart, is localized to the mitochondrion where it adopts an extremely protease-resistant fold, associates non-integrally with intermembrane space-facing membranes and assembles in a range of complexes. Even though multiple isoforms are expressed at the mRNA level, only a single polypeptide that co-migrates with the human isoform lacking exon 5 is expressed in human skin fibroblasts, HEK293 cells, and murine heart and liver mitochondria. Finally, using a new genome-edited mammalian BTHS cell culture model, we demonstrate that the loss-of-function mechanisms for two BTHS alleles that represent two of the seven functional classes of BTHS mutation as originally defined in yeast, are the same when modeled in human TAZ.

P53 Regulates Rapid Apoptosis in Human Pluripotent Stem Cells.

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are sensitive to DNA damage and undergo rapid apoptosis compared to their differentiated progeny cells. Here, we explore the underlying mechanisms for the increased apoptotic sensitivity of hPSCs that helps to determine pluripotent stem cell fate. Apoptosis was induced by exposure to actinomycin D, etoposide, or tunicamycin, with each agent triggering a distinct apoptotic pathway. We show that hPSCs are more sensitive to all three types of apoptosis induction than are lineage-non-specific, retinoic-acid-differentiated hPSCs. Also, Bax activation and pro-apoptotic mitochondrial intermembrane space protein release, which are required to initiate the mitochondria-mediated apoptosis pathway, are more rapid in hPSCs than in retinoic-acid-differentiated hPSCs. Surprisingly, Bak and not Bax is essential for actinomycin-D-induced apoptosis in human embryonic stem cells. Finally, P53 is degraded rapidly in an ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent pathway in hPSCs at steady state but quickly accumulates and induces apoptosis when Mdm2 function is impaired. Rapid degradation of P53 ensures the survival of healthy hPSCs but avails these cells for immediate apoptosis upon cellular damage by P53 stabilization. Altogether, we provide an underlying, interconnected molecular mechanism that primes hPSCs for quick clearance by apoptosis to eliminate hPSCs with unrepaired genome alterations and preserves organismal genomic integrity during the early critical stages of human embryonic development.