Comparison of ABO genotyping methods: a study of two low-resolution polymerase chain reaction assays in a clinical testing laboratory.

CONCLUSIONS: The ABO blood group system is the most clinically significant system in transfusion medicine. Although serologic typing for ABO antigens is routine and reliable, molecular methods can be used to predict an ABO type in the absence of a blood specimen as well as to investigate ABO typing discrepancies often caused by ABO subgroups that cause weakened antigen expression, weak or missing serum reactivity, and/or extra red blood cell reactivity. By detecting single nucleotide variants that are hallmarks of the major ABO alleles, low-resolution genotyping methods can be used to make allele assignments and predict phenotypes. This approach has become a dependable tool, initially to resolve typing discrepancies identified in blood banks and donor centers and, more recently, to predict the ABO group in bone marrow transplant donors and in deceased donors of solid organs. The aim of this report is to compare two different low-resolution polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods: a PCRrestriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) implemented based on a publication and a commercially available TaqManbased sequence-specific primer-PCR for resolution of ABO typing discrepancies. Fifty-six peripheral blood samples from 31 patients and 25 blood donors were used to isolate genomic DNA and perform genotyping. Results of 49 of the 56 samples (87.5%) were concordant between methods, three samples yielded an unexpected banding pattern on the PCR-RFLP method, and four sample results were discordant between assays. The discordances all involved group A versus A2 discrepancies. Sanger sequencing was used as a high-resolution genotyping method to resolve discrepancies between the two low-resolution methods. This study demonstrates that, in the majority of cases, a low-resolution genotyping method can resolve an ABO discrepancy. Although there is no U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved genotyping method for ABO determination, molecular testing for investigation of discrepancies is a useful tool for blood banks and transplant programs.

En2, Pax2/5 and Tcf-4 transcription factors cooperate in patterning the Xenopus brain.

Among Xenopus Lef/Tcfs, XTcf-4 has an outstanding role. In early development it is located exclusively in the midbrain where it is essential for midbrain and isthmus development. In order to identify transcription factors responsible for the restriction of XTcf-4 expression we isolated a 3.8kb fragment of the XTcf-4 promoter. We found that this promoter fragment is sufficient to mimic endogenous XTcf-4 expression in the midbrain. Characterization of putative binding sites for en2 and pax2/5 revealed that en2, but not pax2/5 directly represses XTcf-4 promoter activity. Gain-of-function experiments in Xenopus embryos confirmed this en2-mediated repression. Loss-of-function experiments demonstrate that both en2 and pax2/5 are essential for endogenous XTcf-4 expression. The primary effect of pax2/5 depletion thereby appears to be a reduced en2 expression at neurula stages. Because en2 can compensate for the depletion of pax2/5, we assume a hierarchical regulation of gene expression in the midbrain/isthmus region with pax2/5 acting upstream of en2. Furthermore, since the XTcf-4 expression domain does not overlap with the expression domains of the isthmus marker genes en2 and pax2/5, we conclude that the knock-down of en2 and pax2/5 results in a downregulation of a paracrine growth factor regulating XTcf-4 expression. We found that the growth factor for this non-cell-autonomous effect of en2 and pax2/5 is wnt-1 acting on the -1437 Lef/Tcf binding site on the XTcf-4 promoter. We provide evidence that the main nuclear wnt transducer for the autoregulation of XTcf-4 is XTcf-1.

Autoregulation of XTcf-4 depends on a Lef/Tcf site on the XTcf-4 promoter.

The restricted expression of XTcf-4 in the anterior midbrain is regulated via an active wnt/beta-catenin pathway (Kunz et al.,2004, Dev Biol 273:390-401). The molecular mechanism of this autoregulatory loop, however, remained elusive. Here we show that the activity of a 1,775 bp promoter fragment containing a consensus Lef/Tcf binding site at position -1,437 to -1,428 is upregulated by activating transcription factors of the Lef/Tcf family. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed that endogenous beta-catenin is bound to the Lef/Tcf site on the promoter. Thus, regulation of XTcf-4 by canonical wnt-signaling is directly controlled by binding to and activating a consensus Lef/Tcf binding site within its own promoter.