Case management of malaria in Swaziland, 2011-2015: on track for elimination?

Objective: To assess adherence to malaria diagnosis and treatment guidelines (2010 and 2014) in all health care facilities in Swaziland between 2011 and 2015. Methods: This was a cross-sectional descriptive study involving all health care facilities that diagnosed and managed malaria cases in Swaziland. Patients' age, sex, diagnosis method and type of treatment were analysed. Results: Of 1981 records for severe and uncomplicated malaria analysed, 56% of cases were uncomplicated and 14% had severe malaria. The type of malaria was not recorded for 30% of cases. Approximately 71% of cases were confirmed by rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) alone, 3% by microscopy alone and 26% by both RDT and microscopy. Of the uncomplicated cases, 93% were treated with artemether-lumefantrine (AL) alone, 5% with quinine alone and 2% with AL and quinine. Amongst the severe cases, 11% were treated with AL alone, 44% with quinine alone and 45% with AL and quinine. For severe malaria, clinics and health centres prescribed AL alone more often than hospitals (respectively 13%, 12% and 4%, P = 0.03). Conclusion: RDTs and/or microscopy results are used at all facilities to inform treatment. Poor recording of malaria type causes difficulties in assessing the prescription of antimalarial drugs.

Objectif : Evaluer l'adhérence aux directives de diagnostic et de traitement du paludisme (2010 et 2014) dans toutes les structures de santé du Swaziland entre 2011 et 2015.Méthodes : Une étude transversale descriptive impliquant toutes les structures de santé qui ont diagnostiqué et pris en charge des cas de paludisme au Swaziland, a été réalisée. On a analysé l'âge des patients, leur sexe, la méthode de diagnostic et le type de traitement.Résultats: De 1981 dossiers de paludisme grave et non compliqué analysés, 56% de ces cas ont été non compliqués et 14% ont été graves. Le type de paludisme n'a pas été enregistré dans 30% des cas. Près de 71% des cas ont été confirmés par des tests de diagnostic rapide (RDT) seuls, 3% par microscopie seule et 26% par RDT et microscopie à la fois. Parmi les cas non compliqués, 93% ont été traités par l'artéméther-luméfantrine (AL) seul, 5% par quinine seule et 2% par AL et quinine. Parmi les cas graves, 11% ont été traités par AL seul, 44% par quinine seule et 45% par AL et quinine. Les dispensaires et les centres de santé prescrivent plus souvent l'AL seul en cas de paludisme grave, comparés aux hôpitaux (respectivement 13%, 12% et 4% ; P = 0,03).Conclusion : Les résultats de RDT et/ou de microscopie sont utilisés dans toutes les structures pour guider le traitement. Un enregistrement médiocre du type de paludisme crée des difficultés pour évaluer la prescription des médicaments antipaludéens.

Objetivo: Evaluar el cumplimiento de las orientaciones en materia de diagnóstico y tratamiento del paludismo (2010 y 2014) en todos los establecimientos de salud de Swazilandia del 2011 al 2015.Métodos: Un estudio transversal descriptivo de todos los centros de atención de salud que diagnostican y tratan casos de paludismo en el país. Se analizó la edad de los pacientes, el sexo, el método diagnóstico y el tipo de tratamiento antipalúdico.Resultados: Se analizaron 1981 historias clínicas de casos de paludismo grave y sin complicaciones; el 56% de estos casos no presentó complicaciones y el 14% correspondió a casos de paludismo grave. El tipo de paludismo no se registró en el 30% de los casos. Alrededor del 71% de casos se confirmó solo mediante pruebas diagnósticas rápidas (RDT), el 3% solo por microscopia y el 26% por ambos métodos. El 93% de los casos no complicados se trató exclusivamente con la combinación artemetero + lumefantrina (AL), el 5% con quinina exclusiva y el 2% con AL y quinina. De los casos graves, el 11% se trató solo con AL, el 44% solo con quinina y el 45% con AL y quinina. En los casos de paludismo grave se receta de manera exclusiva AL, con mayor frecuencia en los consultorios y los centros de salud que en los hospitales (13%, 12% y 4% respectivamente; P = 0,03).Conclusión: Los resultados de las RDTs o de la microscopia se utilizan en todos los establecimientos con el fin de fundamentar el tratamiento. Un registro deficiente del tipo de paludismo dificulta la evaluación de las prácticas de recetas de fármacos antipalúdicos.

Gender differences in treatment outcomes among 15-49 year olds with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis in Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: To determine gender differences in treatment outcomes among 15-49 year olds with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and factors associated with poor outcomes in Kenya. DESIGN: Retrospective descriptive cohort. RESULTS: Of 16 056 subjects analysed, 38% were female and 62% male. Females had a higher risk of poor treatment outcome than males (12% vs. 10%, P < 0.001; adjusted OR 1.29, 95%CI 1.16-1.44, P < 0.001). In the first multivariate model, restricting the analysis to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive patients and adjusting for risk factors and clustering, females had a non-significantly lower risk of poor outcome (OR 0.99, 95%CI 0.86-1.13, P = 0.844). In the model restricted to HIV-negative patients, a non-significantly lower risk was found (OR 0.89, 95%CI 0.73-1.09, P = 0.267). In the second model, restricting analysis to patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) and adjusting for risk factors and clustering, females had a non-significantly lower risk of poor PTB treatment outcomes (OR 0.98, 95%CI 0.84-1.14, P = 0.792). In the model restricted to HIV-positive patients not on ART, a non-significantly higher risk was found (OR 1.15, 95%CI 0.79-1.67, P = 0.461). CONCLUSION: Females of reproductive age are likely to have poorer treatment outcomes than males. Among females, not commencing ART during anti-tuberculosis treatment seemed to be associated with poor outcomes.

Antenatal care and pregnancy outcomes in a safe motherhood health voucher system in rural Kenya, 2007-2013.

SETTING: A rural private health facility, Ruby Medical Centre (RMC), participating in a safe motherhood health voucher system for poor women in Kiambu County, Kenya. OBJECTIVES: Between 2007 and 2013, to determine 1) the number of women who delivered at the RMC, their characteristics and pregnancy-related outcomes, and 2) the number of women who received an incomplete antenatal care (ANC) package and associated factors. DESIGN: Retrospective cross-sectional study using routine programme data. RESULTS: During the study period, 2635 women delivered at the RMC: 50% were aged 16-24 years, 60% transferred in from other facilities and 59% started ANC in the third trimester of pregnancy. Of the 2635 women, 1793 (68%) received an incomplete ANC package: 347 (13%) missed essential blood tests, 312 (12%) missed the tetanus toxoid immunisation and 1672 (65%) had fewer than four visits. Presenting late and starting ANC elsewhere were associated with an incomplete package. One pregnancy-related mortality occurred; the stillbirth rate was 10 per 1000 births. CONCLUSION: This first assessment of the health voucher system in rural Kenya showed problems in ANC quality. Despite favourable pregnancy-related outcomes, increased efforts should be made to ensure earlier presentation of pregnant women, comprehensive ANC, and more consistent and accurate monitoring of reproductive indicators and interventions.

Contexte : Une structure de santé privée rurale, le Ruby Medical Centre (RMC), participant à un système de bons de traitement de Maternité sans risques destiné à des femmes pauvres du conté de Kiambu au Kenya.Objectifs : Entre 2007 et 2013, déterminer 1) le nombre de femmes qui ont accouché au RMC, leurs caractéristiques et le devenir de leur grossesse, et 2) le nombre ne bénéficiant que d'un paquet de soins anténataux (ANC) incomplets et les facteurs associés.Schéma : Etude rétrospective transversale basée sur les données recueillies en routine dans les programmes.Résultats : Au cours de la période d'étude, 2635 femmes ont accouché au RMC : 50% étaient âgées de 16 à 24 ans, 60% avaient été transférées d'autres structures et 59% avaient débuté les ANC au cours du 3e trimestre. De ces 2635 femmes, 1793 (68%) avaient un paquet d'ANC incomplet : 347 (13%) ont manqué les principaux tests sanguins, 312 (12%) n'ont pas eu de vaccination anti-tétanique et 1672 (65%) ont eu moins de quatre consultations. Un démarrage tardif et des ANC débutés ailleurs étaient associés à un paquet d'ANC incomplet. Un décès lié à la grossesse est survenu et le taux de mortinatalité a été de 10/1000 naissances.Conclusion : Cette première évaluation du système de bons de traitement dans les zones rurales du Kenya a mis en évidence des problèmes de qualité des ANC. En dépit de l'évolution favorable des grossesses, il est nécessaire d'accroitre les efforts pour faire venir les femmes enceintes plus tôt, offrir des ANC complets et un suivi plus cohérent et précis des indicateurs et des interventions de santé reproductive.

Marco de referencia: El Ruby Medical Centre (RMC) es un centro de atención de salud privado en zona rural, que participa en el sistema de cupones por una maternidad sin riesgo en el condado de Kiambu, en Kenia.Objetivos: Determinar entre el 2007 y el 2013: 1) la cantidad de mujeres cuyo parto se atendió en el RMC, las características de las mujeres y los desenlaces relacionados con el embarazo; y 2) el número de mujeres que recibieron una atención prenatal (ANC) incompleta y los factores asociados con esta situación.Métodos: Fue este un estudio transversal retrospectivo a partir de los datos del programa corriente.Resultados: Durante el período del estudio, se atendió el parto de 2635 mujeres en el RMC, el 50% de las cuales tenía entre 16 y 24 años de edad, el 60% acudió como remisión de otros centros de atención y el 59% había comenzado la ANC durante el tercer trimestre del embarazo. De las 2635 mujeres, 1793 recibieron una ANC incompleta (68%) a saber: en 347 no se practicaron los principales exámenes sanguíneos (13%); 312 no recibieron la vacuna con el toxoide antitetánico (12%); y 1672 acudieron a menos de cuatro citas de control (65%). Los factores asociados con una ANC incompleta fueron una presentación tardía al programa y el inicio de la ANC en un centro diferente. Se presentó un caso de mortalidad relacionada con el embarazo y la tasa de mortinatalidad fue de 10 por 1000 nacimientos.Conclusión: El presente estudio es la primera evaluación del sistema de cupones por una maternidad sin riesgo en la zona rural de Kenia y puso en evidencia problemas en materia de calidad de la ANC. Pese a los desenlaces favorables del embarazo, se precisan iniciativas que fomenten una presentación más temprana de las embarazadas al programa, la ANC integral, y una vigilancia más regular y exacta de los indicadores y las intervenciones en materia de salud reproductiva.

Preventable but neglected: rickets in an informal settlement, Nairobi, Kenya.

SETTING: The primary care clinics of Médecins Sans Frontières within the informal settlement of Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya. OBJECTIVE: To describe the demographic and clinical characteristics of children clinically diagnosed with rickets from September 2012 to October 2013. DESIGN: Descriptive retrospective case review of diagnosis and treatment course with vitamin D and calcium using routine programme data. RESULTS: Of the 82 children who met the clinical diagnosis of rickets, 57% were male, with a median age of 12 months and 14 months for females. Children with rickets were found to have ⩽3 hours/week sunlight exposure for 71% of the children and malnutrition in 39%. Clinical findings on presentation revealed gross motor developmental delays in 44%. The loss to follow-up rate during treatment was 40%. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that rickets is a common clinical presentation among children living in the informal settlement of Kibera and that there are likely multiple factors within that environment contributing to this condition. As rickets is a simply and inexpensively preventable non-communicable disease, we suggest that routine vitamin D supplementation be formally recommended by the World Health Organization for well-child care in Africa, especially in the contexts of informal settlements.

Contexte : Le dispensaire de soins de santé primaire de Médecins sans Frontières au cœur du bidonville de Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya.Objectif : Décrire les caractéristiques démographiques et cliniques d'enfants ayant eu un diagnostic clinique de rachitisme de septembre 2012 à octobre 2013.Schéma : Revue descriptive et rétrospective du diagnostic et du traitement par vitamine D et calcium à travers les données des programmes de routine.Résultats : Sur 82 enfants répondant au diagnostic clinique de rachitisme, 57% étaient des garçons d'un âge médian de 12 mois tandis que l'âge médian des filles était de 14 mois. L'exposition au soleil déclarée par la famille était de ⩽3 heures par semaine pour 71% des enfants et 39% présentaient une malnutrition. Les constatations cliniques à l'arrivée ont mis en évidence un retard de développement moteur marqué chez 44% des enfants. Le taux de perdus de vue pendant le traitement a été de 40%.Conclusion : Cette étude a constaté que le rachitisme était une affection fréquente parmi les enfants vivant dans le bidonville de Kibera et que de nombreux facteurs de l'environnement de Kibera y contribuaient vraisemblablement. Comme le rachitisme est une maladie non transmissible qui peut bénéficier d'une prévention simple et peu coûteuse, nous suggérons qu'une supplémentation en vitamine D soit formellement recommandée par l'Organisation Mondiale de la Santé dans les soins de santé aux enfants en Afrique, surtout dans le contexte de bidonvilles.

Marco de referencia: Los consultorios de atención primaria dirigidos por Médecins Sans Frontières en el asentamiento informal de Kibera, en Nairobi, Kenia.Objetivo: Describir las características clínicas y demográficas de los niños con diagnóstico clínico de raquitismo entre septiembre del 2012 y octubre del 2013.Método: Fue este un análisis descriptivo de casos, en el cual se evaluaron retrospectivamente el diagnóstico y la evolución del tratamiento con vitamina D y calcio, a partir de los datos corrientes del programa.Resultados: De los 82 niños que cumplían con los criterios diagnósticos de raquitismo, el 57% era de sexo masculino, con una mediana de edad de 12 meses y la mediana de edad de las niñas fue 14 meses. En el 71% los casos de raquitismo se encontró que la exposición directa al sol era de ⩽3 horas por semana y el 39% presentaba desnutrición. El examen físico en el momento de la consulta demostró un grave retraso del desarrollo motor en el 44% de los niños. Durante el seguimiento se perdió el 40% de los casos.Conclusiones: El presente estudio puso en evidencia que el raquitismo es una enfermedad frecuente en los niños que acuden a la consulta y viven en el asentamiento informal de Kibera; existen múltiples factores en el medio ambiente que contribuyen a esta situación. Dado que el raquitismo es una enfermedad no transmisible cuya prevención es sencilla y de bajo costo, se propone que la Organización Mundial de la Salud recomiende formalmente el aporte complementario sistemático de vitamina D en la consulta del niño sano en África, sobre todo en los entornos de asentamientos no estructurados.

Open access for operational research publications from low- and middle-income countries: who pays?

Open-access journal publications aim to ensure that new knowledge is widely disseminated and made freely accessible in a timely manner so that it can be used to improve people's health, particularly those in low- and middle-income countries. In this paper, we briefly explain the differences between closed- and open-access journals, including the evolving idea of the 'open-access spectrum'. We highlight the potential benefits of supporting open access for operational research, and discuss the conundrum and ways forward as regards who pays for open access.

Les articles de journaux en accès libre visent à assurer la dissémination large de nouvelles connaissances et de rendre leur accès libre de façon à pouvoir être utilisées rapidement pour améliorer la santé des populations, surtout dans les pays à revenu faible ou moyen. Dans cet article, nous expliquons briêvement les différences entre les publications à accès limité et à accès libre, notamment l'idée en gestation de « spectre d'accès libre ¼. Nous soulignons les bénéfices potentiels du soutien à l'accès libre pour la recherche opérationnelle et ensuite discutons la question de qui paye pour cet accès et la recherche de solutions.

El propósito de las publicaciones en las revistas de acceso libre es lograr una amplia difusión de los nuevos conocimientos mediante el acceso libre y oportuno, de manera que los avances se puedan aplicar a fin de mejorar la salud de las personas, sobre todo en los países de bajos y medianos ingresos. En el presente artículo se explican brevemente las diferencias entre las revistas de acceso libre y acceso restringido y se analiza además la idea evolutiva del 'espectro del acceso libre'. Se destacan las ventajas que puede ofrecer el respaldo al libre acceso a la investigación operativa y se analiza luego el dilema y las opciones que pueden permitir progresar con respecto a la fuente de financiamiento del libre acceso.

Characteristics, medical management and outcomes of survivors of sexual gender-based violence, Nairobi, Kenya.

SETTING: Médecins Sans Frontières Clinic for sexual gender-based violence (SGBV), Nairobi, Kenya. OBJECTIVES: Among survivors of SGBV in 2011, to describe demographic characteristics and episodes of sexual violence, medical management, pregnancy and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) related outcomes. DESIGN: Retrospective review of clinical records and SGBV register. RESULTS: Survivors attending the clinic increased from seven in 2007 to 866 in 2011. Of the 866 survivors included, 92% were female, 34% were children and 54% knew the aggressor; 73% of the assaults occurred inside a home and most commonly in the evening or at night. Post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV was given to 536 (94%), prophylaxis for sexually transmitted infections to 731 (96%) and emergency contraception to 358 (83%) eligible patients. Hepatitis B and tetanus toxoid vaccinations were given to 774 survivors, but respectively only 46% and 14% received a second injection. Eight (4.5%) of 174 women who underwent urine pregnancy testing were positive at 1 month. Of 851 survivors HIV-tested at baseline, 96 (11%) were HIV-positive. None of the 220 (29%) HIV-negative individuals who returned for repeat HIV testing after 3 months was positive. CONCLUSION: Acceptable, good quality SGBV medical care can be provided in large cities of sub-Saharan Africa, although further work is needed to improve follow-up interventions.

Characteristics and treatment outcomes of tuberculosis retreatment cases in three regional hospitals, Uganda.

SETTING: Three regional referral hospitals in Uganda with a high burden of tuberculosis (TB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases. OBJECTIVE: To determine the treatment outcomes of TB retreatment cases and factors influencing these outcomes. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study of routinely collected National Tuberculosis Programme data between 1 January 2009 and 31 December 2010. RESULTS: The study included 331 retreatment patients (68% males), with a median age of 36 years, 93 (28%) of whom were relapse smear-positive, 21 (6%) treatment after failure, 159 (48%) return after loss to follow-up, 26 (8%) relapse smear-negative and 32 (10%) relapse cases with no smear performed. Treatment success rates for all categories of retreatment cases ranged between 28% and 54%. Relapse smear-positive (P = 0.002) and treatment after failure (P = 0.038) cases were less likely to have a successful treatment outcome. Only 32% of the retreatment cases received a Category II treatment regimen; there was no difference in treatment success among patients who received Category II or Category I treatment regimens (P = 0.73). CONCLUSION: Management of TB retreatment cases and treatment success for all categories in three referral hospitals in Uganda was poor. Relapse smear-positive or treatment after failure cases were less likely to have a successful treatment outcome.

Screening for tuberculosis in pregnancy: do we need more than a symptom screen? Experience from western Kenya.

OBJECTIVES: 1) To explore the utility of tuberculosis (TB) symptom screening for symptoms of ≥2 weeks' duration in a routine setting, and 2) to compare differences in TB diagnosis between human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected and non-HIV-infected pregnant women in western Kenya. DESIGN: Comparative cross-sectional study among pregnant women with known HIV status screened for TB from 2010 to 2012, in Eldoret, western Kenya. RESULTS: Of 2983 participants, respectively 34 (1%), 1488 (50.5%) and 1461 (49.5%) had unknown, positive and negative HIV status. The median age was respectively 30 years (interquartile range [IQR] 26-35) and 26 years (IQR 24-31) in HIV-infected and non-infected participants. A positive symptom screen was found in respectively 8% (119/1488) and 5% (67/1461) of the HIV-infected and non-infected women. The median CD4 count at enrolment was 377 cells/µl (IQR 244-530) for HIV-infected women. One non-HIV-infected patient was sputum-positive. For HIV-infected women, TB was presumptively treated in 1% (16/1488) based on clinical symptoms and chest X-ray. Cumulatively, anti-tuberculosis treatment was offered to 0.6% (17/2949) of the participants. CONCLUSION: This study does not seem to demonstrate the utility of TB symptom screening questionnaires in a routine setting among pregnant women, either HIV-infected or non-infected, in western Kenya.

Symptom screen: diagnostic usefulness in detecting pulmonary tuberculosis in HIV-infected pregnant women in Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the diagnostic usefulness of tuberculosis (TB) symptom screening to detect active pulmonary TB among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected pregnant women in two PMTCT (prevention of mother-to-child transmission) clinics in western Kenya that are supported by the United States Agency for International Development-Academic Model Providing Access to Healthcare partnership. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. Participants were interviewed for TB symptoms with a standardized questionnaire (cough >2 weeks, fever, night sweats, weight loss or failure to gain weight). Those with cough submitted sputum specimens for smear microscopy for acid-fast bacilli and mycobacterial culture. Women at >14 weeks gestation underwent shielded chest radiography (CXR). RESULTS: Of 187 HIV-infected women, 38 (20%) were symptom screen-positive. Of these, 21 had a cough for >2 weeks, but all had negative sputum smears and mycobacterial cultures. CXRs were performed in 26 symptomatic women: three were suggestive of TB (1 miliary, 1 infiltrates and 1 cavitary). Of 149 women with a negative symptom screen, 100 had a CXR and seven had a CXR suggestive of TB (1 cavitary, 2 miliary and 4 infiltrates). CONCLUSION: This study did not support the utility of isolated symptom screening in identification of TB disease in our PMTCT setting. CXR was useful in identification of TB suspects in both symptomatic and asymptomatic women.

Task shifting in HIV clinics, Western Kenya.

BACKGROUND: United states Agency for International development-Academic Model for Providing Accesses to Healthcare (USAID-AMPATH) cares for over 80,000 HIV-infected patients. Express care (EC) model addresses challenges of: clinically stable patient's adherent to combined-antiretroviral-therapy with minimal need for clinician intervention and high risk patients newly initiated on cART with CD4 counts < or = 100 cells/mm3 with frequent need for clinician intervention. OBJECTIVE: To improve patient outcomes without increasing clinic resources. DESIGN: A descriptive study of a clinician supervised shared nurse model. SETTING: USAID-AMPATH clinics, Western Kenya. RESULTS: Four thousand eight hundred and twenty four patients were seen during the pilot period, 90.4% were eligible for EC of whom 34.6% were enrolled. Nurses performed all traditional roles and attended to two thirds and three quarters of stable and high risk patient visits respectively. Clinicians attended to one third and one quarter of stable and high risk patient visits respectively and all visits ineligible for express care. CONCLUSION: The EC model is feasible. Task shifting allowed stable patients to receive visits with nurses, while clinicians had more time to concentrate on patients that were new as well as more acutely ill patients.

The emerging problem of coronary heart disease in Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: To review the literature on coronary heart disease (CHD) and its electrocardiogram (ECG) manifestations in Eastern Africa and provide medical education by increasing awareness and strengthening recognition skills of myocardial infarction (MI) through discussion of key features from representative ECGs selected from the Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital (MTRH) ECG service in Eldoret, Kenya. DATA SOURCE: Peer reviewed published articles found using a Medline search. ECGs were reproduced with one complex from each of the 12 standard leads, without patient's name or other identifying information. CONCLUSION: CHD and its risk factors are increasing in prevalence in Eastern Africa over recent years. The ECG remains integral to the diagnosis of acute coronary syndromes, including MI. Representative ECGs from MTRH demonstrate the various features of the common anatomical distributions of MI, enabling medical education. Recognition of CHD and its ECG manifestations is one step on the path to decreasing resultant morbidity and mortality.