Development of Microbiome Biobanks - Challenges and Opportunities.

The microbiome research field is rapidly evolving, but the required biobanking infrastructure is currently fragmented and not prepared for the biobanking of microbiomes. The rapid advancement of technologies requires an urgent assessment of how biobanks can underpin research by preserving microbiome samples and their functional potential.

High likelihood for atrial fibrillation in Cushing's syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: This review analyzes the prevalence of the most important comorbidities associated with atrial fibrillation (AF) in the growing population of patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The review is arranged in a way to list important risk factors for AF and the references, which suggest the significant prevalence of these particular risk factors in CS. The search is conducted on PubMed, Science Direct, Springer, Wiley, SAGE, Oxford Press, and Google Scholar. PubMed search for "Cushing's syndrome atrial fibrillation" on 8/7/2019 revealed 4 papers only. None of them either analyzed or implicated high risk for AF in CS. RESULTS: Arterial hypertension (AHT) can be found in approximately 80% of adult individuals with endogenous CS and in 20% of patients with exogenous CS. The reported prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) is from 13% to 47% in CS patients and the risk for de novo DM is approximately two-fold higher in individuals treated with glucocorticoids. High risk for myocardial infarction (MI) with hazard ratio (HR) 3.7 (95% confidence intervals, CI 2.4-5) in patients with endogenous CS was found. In CS patients the obesity can be detected in up to 41% and overweight in 21-48%. Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE), infections, and hypokalemia are also more prevalent in CS as compared to healthy population. All cited comorbidities have been associated with AF. Therefore, clustering of the important factors associated with AF is confirmed repeatedly in CS. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of AF in CS should be studied more precisely, both in a scientific way and at the individual patient's level.

Age related changes of cAMP and MAPK signaling in Leydig cells of Wistar rats.

Here, we chronologically analyzed age-associated changes of cAMP- and MAPK-signaling in Leydig cells (LCs) in relation with decreased testosterone (T) production. In Wistar rats, decreased serum T observed in 12 to 24-month-old rats was not related to decreased serum LH concentration but to reduced luteinizing hormone receptor (Lhr/LHR) and time-coordinated reduction of steroidogenic gene expression (decreased Cyp11a1, Cyp17a1 in 12-month-old rats followed by decreased Star/StAR, Hsd3b/HSD3B, Hsd17b4, and increased Cyp19a1 later in life). The predecessors of age-related changes noted in LCs from 6 to 12-month-old rats were increased level of soluble adenylate cyclase (Adcy/AC) 10, increased JNK phosphorylation but suppressed P38 MAPK. At approximately the same time changed mRNA abundance for transcription factors important for steroidogenesis was detected (increased Nur77 and decreased Sf1, Dax1). Aging caused biphasic expression pattern of ERK1/2 and Nur77: increased in 12-month but decreased in LCs from 24-month-old rats. Further, decreased basal cAMP level observed from 12 to 24th month coincidence with increased expression of cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase (Pde)4a, Pde4b and regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (Prkar/PKAR). Exposing of senescent LCs to permeable cAMP-analog improved transcription of Sf1, Nur77, Star, Cyp11a1,Cyp17a1, but without effect on aging pattern of Dax1, Pde4a/b, Prkar2a, Lhr and MAPK genes. Collectively, results indicated that age-related LC dysfunction is accompanied with changes in MAPK and cAMP signaling and coordinated reduction in the expression of many of the genes that participate in T synthesis. The predecessors of aged-related changes are increased ratio of pJNK/JNK, AC10 and decreased P38 level in LCs from 6-month-old rats.

Orally applied doxazosin disturbed testosterone homeostasis and changed the transcriptional profile of steroidogenic machinery, cAMP/cGMP signalling and adrenergic receptors in Leydig cells of adult rats.

Doxazosin (Doxa) is an α1-selective adrenergic receptor (ADR) antagonist widely used, alone or in combination, to treat high blood pressure, benign prostatic hyperplasia symptoms, and recently has been suggested as a potential drug for prostate cancer prevention/treatment. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of in vivo Doxa po-application, in clinically relevant dose, on: (i) steroidogenic machinery homeostasis; (ii) cAMP/cGMP signalling; (iii) transcription profile of ADR in Leydig cells of adult rats. The results showed that po-application of Doxa for once (1×Doxa), or for two (2×Doxa) or 10 (10×Doxa) consecutive days significantly disturbed steroidogenic machinery homeostasis in Leydig cells. Doxa po-application significantly decreased circulating luteinizing hormone and androgens levels. The level of androgens in testicular interstitial fluid and that extracted from testes obtained from 1×Doxa/2×Doxa rats decreased, although it remained unchanged in 10×Doxa rats. Similarly, the ex vivo basal androgen production followed in testes isolated from 1×Doxa/2×Doxa rats decreased, while remained unchanged in 10×Doxa rats. Differently, ex vivo testosterone production and steroidogenic capacity of Leydig cells isolated from 1×Doxa/2×Doxa rats was stimulated, while 10×Doxa had opposite effect. In the same cells, cAMP content/release showed similar stimulatory effect, but back to control level in Leydig cells of 10×Doxa. 1×Doxa/2×Doxa decreased transcripts for cAMP specific phosphodiesterases Pde7b/Pde8b, whereas 10×Doxa increased Pde4d. All types of treatment reduced the expression of genes encoding protein kinase A (PRKA) regulatory subunit (Prkar2b), whereas only 10×Doxa stimulated catalytic subunit (Prkaca). Doxa application more affected cGMP signalling: stimulated transcription of constitutive nitric oxide synthases (Nos1, Nos3) in time-dependent manner, whereas reduced inducible Nos2. 10×Doxa increased guanylyl cyclase 1 transcript and PRKG1 protein in Leydig cells. Orally applied Doxa significantly disturbed the transcriptional 'signature' of steroidogenic machinery, cAMP/cGMP signalling and ADRs and ß-ADRs kinases in Leydig cells, thus giving new molecular insights into the role of cAMP/cGMP/adrenalin signalling in Leydig cells homeostasis.

Immobilization stress reduces oxygen consumption of the isolated interstitial rats' testes cells.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of acute and repeated immobilization stress on oxygen consumption (QO2) of the isolated interstitial rats' testes cells (ISC). The oxygen consumption by ISC testes was measured in vitro with a Clark-type oxygen electrode. Acute immobilization stress (2 h) induced decrease in QO2 (-49% V4, -31% V3) which was statistically significant (p<0.01). Repeated immobilization stress (2 hours daily for 10 consecutive days) induced a fall in QO2 (-10% V4, -4% V3) but this inhibition of respiration was not statistically significant (p>0.05). The mechanisms by which immobilization stress induces mitochondrial dysfunction as well as mechanisms which develop an adaptive response to repeated immobilization remain unclear, so that further investigations of this mechanisms are required.

Structural complexity of the testis and PKG I / StAR interaction regulate the Leydig cell adaptive response to repeated immobilization stress.

The role of the structural complexity of the testis and the nitric oxide (NO)-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signalling pathway was analysed in adult male rats exposed to acute and repeated immobilization stress (IMO). In whole testis preparations, exposure to acute and repeated IMO caused an increase in NO production. In contrast, NO production was inhibited in interstitial cell preparations after exposure to all types of stress. In purified Leydig cell preparations, NO production was inhibited only after exposure to prolonged IMO. These findings indicate that biologically active compounds released from various testicular compartments exert both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on NO production. TaqMan Low Density Array of rat phosphodiesterases revealed a decrease in the expression of cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) in Leydig cells of animals exposed to repeated IMO. In contrast, the expression of cGMP-dependent protein kinase type I (PKG I), total and phosphorylated steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), and PKG I/StAR immunoprecipitated complex was increased during repeated exposure to IMO. The increase in both total and phosphorylated StAR formation was effectively blocked by inhibition of PKG I in vitro. Thus, increased expressions of PKG I and StAR complex, accompanied by decreased PDE5 activity, suggest that the NO-cGMP signalling pathway and consequent activation of the StAR protein regulate the adaptive response of Leydig cells to repeated IMO stress.

The adaptive response of adult rat Leydig cells to repeated immobilization stress: the role of protein kinase A and steroidogenic acute regulatory protein.

The ability of immobilization stress (IMO) to decrease Leydig cell steroidogenesis and serum androgen concentration has been previously observed, but the possible mechanism(s) involved in the adaptation to prolonged or repeated stress have not been identified. In this study, we investigated whether the Leydig cells obtained from adult rats subjected to acute (15 min, 30 min or 2 h) and repeated (2 or 10 days, 2 h daily) IMO show adaptive mechanism(s) in response to stress-impaired steroidogenesis. The results showed that basal and human chorionic gonadotropin-stimulated cAMP production by Leydig cells isolated from rats exposed to both acute and repeated IMO was significantly reduced. Despite the reduced cAMP production, immunoblot analysis revealed increased immunoreactivity for both protein kinase A (PKA) and steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein in Leydig cells obtained from rats repeatedly exposed to IMO. Also, the phosphorylation and production of mature StAR protein was evident during exposure of rats to repeated IMO treatment. Treatment with cholesterol, the steroid substrate transported into mitochondria by StAR, significantly increased androgen and progesterone production by Leydig cells isolated from rats exposed to repeated IMO. In contrast, when other steroid substrates (22(R)-OH-cholesterol, pregnenolone, progesterone, Delta4-androstenedione) were present in the culture media, Leydig cell steroidogenesis was still reduced by IMO. Thus, PKA-mediated phosphorylation of StAR protein is an important mechanism in the adaptive response of Leydig cells to repeated IMO.

In vivo and in vitro effects of PCB126 and PCB153 on rat testicular androgenesis.

In this study we compared the effects of PCB126 and PCB153 on adult rat testicular androgenesis and the status of antioxidant enzymes in the interstitial cell compartment 96h after local intratesticular application. Obtained results indicated PCB126-induced inhibition of conversion of progesterone (P) and Δ(4)-androstenedione (A(4)) to testosterone (T), and stimulation of conversion of P to T induced by PCB153, while combined application had no effect. Activities of antioxidant enzymes were unchanged, except of decreased activity of SOD in PCB126-treated group. In parallel experiments, adult purified Leydig cells challenged with PCB congeners were incubated for 2h in the presence of corresponding steroid substrates. Results demonstrated that in the presence of subsaturating substrate concentrations PCB126 induced inhibition of conversion of P and A(4) to T at nM to µM doses, while PCB153 caused stimulation at nM concentrations. Further studies should indicate possible mechanism(s) of modulation of androgenesis by tested PCB congeners.

Diagnostic microbial microarrays in soil ecology.

Soil microbial communities are responsible for important physiological and metabolic processes. In the last decade soil microorganisms have been frequently analysed by cultivation-independent techniques because only a minority of the natural microbial communities are accessible by cultivation. Cultivation-independent community analyses have revolutionized our understanding of soil microbial diversity and population dynamics. Nevertheless, many methods are still laborious and time-consuming, and high-throughput methods have to be applied in order to understand population shifts at a finer level and to be better able to link microbial diversity with ecosystems functioning. Microbial diagnostic microarrays (MDMs) represent a powerful tool for the parallel, high-throughput identification of many microorganisms. Three categories of MDMs have been defined based on the nature of the probe and target molecules used: phylogenetic oligonucleotide microarrays with short oligonucleotides against a phylogenetic marker gene; functional gene arrays containing probes targeting genes encoding specific functions; and community genome arrays employing whole genomes as probes. In this review, important methodological developments relevant to the application of the different types of diagnostic microarrays in soil ecology will be addressed and new approaches, needs and future directions will be identified, which might lead to a better insight into the functional activities of soil microbial communities.

Spontaneous and receptor-controlled soluble guanylyl cyclase activity in anterior pituitary cells.

Nitric oxide (NO)-dependent soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is operative in mammalian cells, but its presence and the role in cGMP production in pituitary cells have been incompletely characterized. Here we show that sGC is expressed in pituitary tissue and dispersed cells, enriched lactotrophs and somatotrophs, and GH(3) immortalized cells, and that this enzyme is exclusively responsible for cGMP production in unstimulated cells. Basal sGC activity was partially dependent on voltage-gated calcium influx, and both calcium-sensitive NO synthases (NOS), neuronal and endothelial, were expressed in pituitary tissue and mixed cells, enriched lactotrophs and somatotrophs, and GH(3) cells. Calcium-independent inducible NOS was transiently expressed in cultured lactotrophs and somatotrophs after the dispersion of cells, but not in GH(3) cells and pituitary tissue. This enzyme participated in the control of basal sGC activity in cultured pituitary cells. The overexpression of inducible NOS by lipopolysaccharide + interferon-gamma further increased NO and cGMP levels, and the majority of de novo produced cGMP was rapidly released. Addition of an NO donor to perifused pituitary cells also led to a rapid cGMP release. Calcium-mobilizing agonists TRH and GnRH slightly increased basal cGMP production, but only when added in high concentrations. In contrast, adenylyl cyclase agonists GHRH and CRF induced a robust increase in cGMP production, with EC(50)s in the physiological concentration range. As in cells overexpressing inducible NOS, the stimulatory action of GHRH and CRF was preserved in cells bathed in calcium-deficient medium, but was not associated with a measurable increase in NO production. These results indicate that sGC is present in secretory anterior pituitary cells and is regulated in an NO-dependent manner through constitutively expressed neuronal and endothelial NOS and transiently expressed inducible NOS, as well as independently of NO by adenylyl cyclase coupled-receptors.

Dependence of soluble guanylyl cyclase activity on calcium signaling in pituitary cells.

The role of nitric oxide (NO) in the stimulation of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is well established, but the mechanism by which the enzyme is inactivated during the prolonged NO stimulation has not been characterized. In this paper we studied the interactions between NO and intracellular Ca(2+) in the control of sGC in rat anterior pituitary cells. Experiments were done in cultured cells, which expressed neuronal and endothelial NO synthases, and in cells with elevated NO levels induced by the expression of inducible NO synthase and by the addition of several NO donors. Basal sGC-dependent cGMP production was stimulated by the increase in NO levels in a time-dependent manner. In contrast, depolarization of cells by high K(+) and Bay K 8644, an L-type Ca(2+) channel agonist, inhibited sGC activity. Depolarization-induced down-regulation of sGC activity was also observed in cells with inhibited cGMP-dependent phosphodiesterases but not in cells bathed in Ca(2+)-deficient medium. This inhibition was independent from the pattern of Ca(2+) signaling (oscillatory versus nonoscillatory) and NO levels, and was determined by averaged concentration of intracellular Ca(2+). These results indicate that inactivation of sGC by intracellular Ca(2+) serves as a negative feedback to break the stimulatory action of NO on enzyme activity in intact pituitary cells.

Acute effects of polychlorinated biphenyl-containing and -free transformer fluids on rat testicular steroidogenesis.

Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)-based transformer fluids belong to a class of environmentally persistent mixtures with known toxic effects. Here, we studied the acute effects of Askarel (which contains Aroclor 1260) and two substitute transformer fluids (the silicone oil-based DC561 and the mineral oil-based ENOL C) on rat testicular steroidogenesis. Single intraperitoneal (ip; 10 mg/kg body weight) or bilateral intratesticular (itt; 25 microg/testis) injections of Askarel markedly decreased serum androgen levels 24 hr after administration. In acute testicular cultures from these animals, chorionic gonadotropin-stimulated progesterone and androgen productions were severely attenuated. When itt was injected or added in vitro, Askarel inhibited 3ss-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3ssHSD), stimulated 17[alpha]-hydroxylase/lyase (P450c17), and did not affect 17ss-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in testicular postmitochondrial fractions. The ip-injected Askarel did not affect 3ssHSD, but inhibited P450c17, suggesting that a more intensive metabolism of peripherally injected Askarel reduces the circulating levels of active ingredients below the threshold needed for inhibition of 3ssHSD and generates a derivative that inhibits P450c17. In contrast to Askarel, itt-injection (25 microg/testis) of DC561 and ENOL C did not affect in vivo and in vitro steroidogenesis. These findings show the acute effects of Askarel, but not silicone and mineral oils, on testicular steroidogenesis.

Inhibition of rat testicular androgenesis by a polychlorinated biphenyl mixture aroclor 1248.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are complex mixtures of congeners that exhibit carcinogenic and toxicant activities in a variety of mammalian tissues. Here, we studied the acute in vivo and in vitro effects of a commercially used PCB product, Aroclor 1248 (A1248), a mixture of tri-, tetra-, and pentachloro congeners. Single intraperitoneal (i.p.) or bilateral intratesticular (i.t.) injections of A1248 decreased serum androgen levels in both groups 24 h after injection. Chorionic gonadotropin-stimulated androgen production by acute testicular cultures from both groups was also reduced, and progesterone production was attenuated in cultures from i.t.-treated animals. The capacity of the postmitochondrial fractions from testes of i.t.-treated animals to convert pregnenolone to progesterone and progesterone to testosterone was reduced as well. In vitro studies revealed that a 10- to 15-min exposure of postmitochondrial testicular fractions and intact interstitial cells from normal animals to A1248 in a subnanomolar concentration range was sufficient to attenuate the conversion of pregnenolone to progesterone and progesterone to testosterone. At micromolar concentrations, A1248 added in vitro also inhibited the conversion of Delta(4)-androstendione to testosterone without affecting the viability of interstitial cells. These results indicate that A1248 down-regulates the testicular androgenesis by an acute inhibition of 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 17alpha-hydroxylase/lyase, and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activities.

Inhibitory effects of stress-activated nitric oxide on antioxidant enzymes and testicular steroidogenesis.

The messenger role of nitric oxide (NO) in immobilization stress-induced inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis has been previously suggested. In accord with this, here, we show that the intratesticular injection of isosorbide dinitrate (ISDN; 2x2.5 mg/testis), an NO donor, mimicked the action of stress on serum testosterone concentrations and hCG-stimulated testosterone production in rat testicular tissue. When added in vitro, ISDN inhibited testicular 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and 17alpha-hydroxylase/lyase. Immobilization stress and injections of ISDN also decreased the activity of catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione transferase, and glutathione reductase in the interstitial compartment of testis. When stressed rats were treated concomitantly with bilateral intratesticular injections of N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, a non-selective NOS inhibitor (2x600 microg/testis), the activities of antioxidative enzymes, as well as serum testosterone concentration, were partially normalized. These results indicate that stress-induced stimulation of the testicular NO signalling pathway leads to inhibition of both steroidogenic and antioxidant enzymes.

Involvement of inducible nitric oxide synthase in stress-impaired testicular steroidogenesis.

The immobilization stress induces an acute inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis that is mediated by the nitric oxide (NO) signaling pathway. Here we compared the effects of 2-h immobilization stress on in vivo and in vitro rat steroidogenesis at two time points, 0 h and 6 h after the end of the stress session. As expected, serum androgens and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-stimulated progesterone and testosterone production by testicular tissue were inhibited at 0 h, and also at the 6-h time point. Both the acute and sustained inhibitions of in vitro steroidogenesis were accompanied by a significant increase in nitrite, a stable oxidation product of NO. To clarify which subtype of NO synthase (NOS) (constitutive (cNOS) or inducible (iNOS)) participates in down-regulation of testicular steroidogenesis, aminoguanidine hydrochloride (AG), a selective iNOS inhibitor, was employed. Intratesticular injection of AG prevented the sustained, but not the acute, stress-induced decrease in serum testosterone. When added in vitro, it also prevented the sustained decrease in steroid production and increase in nitrite production by testicular tissue, both in a dose-dependent manner and with EC microM. Furthermore, AG added in vivo and in vitro effectively blocked the sustained decrease in 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3betaHSD) and 17alpha-hydroxylase/C17-20 lyase (P450c17) activities. In all concentrations employed, AG did not affect serum androgens and in vitro steroid and nitrite production in unstressed animals. These results indicate that the NO signaling pathway participates in acute and sustained stress-induced down-regulation of testicular steroidogenesis, presumably through its direct action on 3betaHSD and P450c17. The acute NO production is controlled by cNOS and the sustained production of this messenger is controlled by iNOS.

The effect of acute stress and opioid antagonist on the activity of NADPH-P450 reductase in rat Leydig cells.

Previous studies indicate that acute immobilization stress (IMO; 2 h) impaired testicular steroidogenesis primarily at the testicular level decreasing the activity of certain steroidogenic enzymes. In the present study unstressed rats as well as IMO rats (2 h) were treated by intratesticular injection of naltrexone methobromide (NMB; peripheral opioid receptor antagonist; 36 microg/testis) or vehicle at the beginning of and at 1 h of the IMO period. In IMO rats the activity of P450c17 was significantly reduced as well as the activity of NADPH-P450 reductase (which catalyzes the transfer of electrons from NADPH to cytochrome P450), while the activity of NADH-b5 reductase was not affected. Present data confirmed previous results that acute IMO reduced testicular P450c17 activity and implicate that decreased activity of NADPH-P450 reductase could be responsible for the inhibition of P450c17 under IMO conditions, while NADH-b5 reductase is probably not involved. NMB treatment antagonized the inhibitory effect of IMO on P450c17 and NADPH-P450 reductase activities. Such results put forward the implication that endogenous opioid peptides are involved in mediating the inhibitory effect of IMO on testicular steroidogenesis, and allow the speculation that NADPH-P450 reductase could be a possible site of such an inhibition.

The involvement of nitric oxide in stress-impaired testicular steroidogenesis.

The participation of the nitric oxide (NO) pathway in downregulation of testicular steroidogenesis in normal and stressed rats was investigated both in vivo and in vitro. In Leydig cells from normal animals, isosorbide dinitrate, an NO donor, decreased the human chorionic gonadotropin (CG)-stimulated and progesterone-derived androgen production. Also, the intratesticular injection of a precursor of NO, arginine (10 mg/testis), transiently decreased serum androgen levels and inhibited human CG-stimulated androgen production in acute testicular cultures. These effects were eliminated in rats cotreated with Nomega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) (2 X 600 microg/each testis). Acute immobilization stress (2 h) decreased serum androgen levels and inhibited human CG-stimulated androgen production in vitro. These effects were accompanied by a significant increase in nitrite, a stable oxidation product of NO, in testicular cultures. Bilateral intratesticular injection of L-NAME prevented the stress-induced decrease of human CG-stimulated androgen production, and significantly reduced the nitrite levels. These results implicate NO in normal and stress-impaired testicular steroidogenesis.