Phospholipase A2-Induced Remodeling Processes on Liquid-Ordered/Liquid-Disordered Membranes Containing Docosahexaenoic or Oleic Acid: A Comparison Study.

Vesicle cycling, which is an important biological event, involves the interplay between membrane lipids and proteins, among which the enzyme phospholipase A2 (PLA2) plays a critical role. The capacity of PLA2 to trigger the budding and fission of liquid-ordered (L(o)) domains has been examined in palmitoyl-docosahexaenoylphosphatidylcholine (PDPC) and palmitoyl-oleoylphosphatidylcholine (POPC)/sphingomyelin/cholesterol membranes. They both exhibited a L(o)/liquid-disordered (L(d)) phase separation. We demonstrated that PLA2 was able to trigger budding in PDPC-containing vesicles but not POPC ones. The enzymatic activity, line tension, and elasticity of the membrane surrounding the L(o) domains are critical for budding. The higher line tension of Lo domains in PDPC mixtures was assigned to the greater difference in order parameters of the coexisting phases. The higher amount of lysophosphatidylcholine generated by PLA2 in the PDPC-containing mixtures led to a less-rigid membrane, compared to POPC. The more elastic L(d) membranes in PDPC mixtures exert a lower counteracting force against the L(o) domain bending.

Role of Aminophospholipids in the Formation of Lipid Rafts in Model Membranes.

The phase separation of aminophospholipids in glycerophospholipid matrix and the effect of cholesterol were studied by means of fluorescence microscopy of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUV). GUVs were composed of binary mixtures, egg yolk phosphatidylcholine (eggPC)/egg yolk phosphatidylethanolamine (eggPE) and egg yolk phosphatidylcholine (eggPC)/brain phosphatidylserine (brainPS), and ternary ones with both aminophospholipids (eggPC/eggPE/brainPS). Gel/liquid-disordered phase coexistence was detected in these mixtures, where aminophospholipids segregate in gel leaf-like domains. When cholesterol (CHOL) was added, the phase separation was shifted at lower temperatures. CHOL increases miscibility of aminophospholipids in PC matrix. Addition of PE and PS to the ternary mixtures (eggPC/eggSM/CHOL) induced liquid-ordered domain formation at higher temperatures. Based on these results, one can conclude that aminophospholipids promote the formation of Lo domains.

Resveratrol alters the lipid composition, metabolism and peroxide level in senescent rat hepatocytes.

Investigations were performed on the influence of resveratrol on the lipid composition, metabolism, fatty acid and peroxide level in plasma membranes of hepatocytes, isolated from aged rats. Hepatocytes were chosen due to the central role of the liver in lipid metabolism and homeostasis. The obtained results showed that the level of sphingomyelin (SM) and phosphatidylserine (PS) was augmented in plasma membranes of resveratrol-treated senescent hepatocytes. The saturated/unsaturated fatty acids ratio of the two most abundant membrane phospholipids, phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), was decreased as a result of resveratrol treatment. The neutral sphingomyelinase was found to be responsible for the increase of SM and the decrease of ceramide in plasma membranes of resveratrol-treated senescent hepatocytes. Using labeled acetate as a precursor of lipid synthesis we demonstrated, that resveratrol treatment resulted in inhibition mainly of phospholipid synthesis, followed by fatty acids synthesis. Resveratrol induced reduction of specific membrane-associated markers of apoptosis such as localization of PS in the external plasma membrane monolayer and ceramide level. Finally, the content of lipid peroxides was investigated, because the unsaturated fatty acids, which were augmented as a result of resveratrol treatment, are an excellent target of oxidative attack. The results showed that the lipid peroxide level was significantly lower, ROS were slightly reduced and GSH was almost unchanged in resveratrol-treated hepatocytes. We suggest, that one possible biochemical mechanism, underlying the reported resveratrol-induced changes, is the partial inactivation of neutral sphingomyelinase, leading to increase of SM, the latter acting as a native membrane antioxidant. In conclusion, our studies indicate that resveratrol treatment induces beneficial alterations in the phospholipid and fatty acid composition, as well as in the ceramide and peroxide content in plasma membranes of senescent hepatocytes. Thus, the presented results imply that resveratrol could improve the functional activity of the membrane lipids in the aged liver by influencing specific membrane parameters, associated with the aging process.

Structural organization of plasma membrane lipids isolated from cells cultured as a monolayer and in tissue-like conditions.

Complementary biophysical approaches were used to study the structural organization of plasma membrane lipids obtained from fibroblasts cultured as two-dimensional (2D) monolayer and in tissue-like three-dimensional (3D) conditions. Fluorescence microscopy experiments demonstrated different domain patterns for 2D and 3D plasma membrane lipid extracts. ESR demonstrated that 3D lipid extract is characterized with lower order parameter than 2D in the deep hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer. Higher cholesterol and sphingomyelin content in 3D extract, known to increase the order in the glycerophospholipid matrix, was not able to compensate higher fatty acid polyunsaturation of the phospholipids. The interfacial region of the bilayer was probed by the fluorescent probe Laurdan. A higher general polarization value for 3D extract was measured. It is assigned to the increased content of sphingomyelin, cholesterol, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine in the 3D membranes. These results demonstrate that cells cultured under different conditions exhibit compositional heterogeneity of the constituent lipids which determine different structural organization of the membranes.

Effect of sphingosine on domain morphology in giant vesicles.

Sphingosine is a bioactive molecule which is known to participate in the regulation of a number of cellular processes such as apoptosis, cell differentiation, growth, etc. Sphingosine was observed to exhibit different domain morphology depending on the surrounding lipid matrix in biomimetic systems such as giant vesicles. Our current results showed that in a glycerophospholipid matrix sphingosine segregated in gel leaf-like domains whereas cholesterol presence increased its miscibility by melting gel domains in a concentration-dependent manner. Sphingosine and cholesterol did not form merging liquid domains on the micron scale as observed for sphingomyelin and cholesterol. However, we were able to visualize that sphingosine appears as a stabilizer and amplifier of domains in liquid-ordered phase by increasing the temperature of their formation and fraction. These results imply that sphingosine acts as a modulator of the lipid domain formation and thus it could exert its biological role, not only through direct binding to proteins, but also indirectly by influencing their sorting in membranes and modulating the processes of signal transduction.

Alterations in the content and physiological role of sphingomyelin in plasma membranes of cells cultured in three-dimensional matrix.

The three-dimensional (3D) cell culture approach offers a means to study cells under conditions that mimic an in vivo environment, thus avoiding the limitations imposed by the conventional two-dimensional (2D) monolayer cell cultures. By using this approach we demonstrated significant differences in the plasma membrane phospholipid composition and susceptibility to oxidation in cells cultured in three-dimensional environment compared to conventional monolayer cultures. The plasma membrane sphingomyelin (SM), which is a functionally active membrane phospholipid, was markedly increased in plasma membranes of 3D cells. To analyze the mechanisms underlying SM accumulation, we determined the activities of sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes like neutral sphingomyelinase and ceramidase, which are also related to cellular redox homeostasis and to oxidative stress. Fibroblasts cultured in three-dimensional environment showed different redox potential and lower lipid susceptibility to oxidative damage compared to monolayer cells. The relative content of unsaturated fatty acids, which serve as targets of oxidative attack, was observed to be higher in major phospholipids, such as phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine, in plasma membranes of 3D cells. The possibility that the higher level of SM, might be responsible for the lower degree of oxidation of 3D phospholipids was tested by selective reduction of SM through treatment with exogenous sphingomyelinase. The results showed that the decrease of plasma membrane SM was accompanied by an increase of the lipid peroxides in both 2D and 3D cells. We presume that culturing as a monolayer is stressful for the cells and leads to activation of certain stress-related enzymes, resulting in reduction of the SM level. Our results show that the lower content of plasma membrane SM in cells cultured as a monolayer renders the phospholipid molecules more susceptible to oxidative stress.

Membrane microdomains: role of ceramides in the maintenance of their structure and functions.

Free-standing giant unilamellar vesicles were used to visualize the complex lateral heterogeneity, induced by ceramide in the membrane bilayer at micron scale using C(12)-NBD-PC probe partitioning under the fluorescence microscope. Ceramide gel domains exist as leaf-like structures in glycerophospholipid/ceramide mixtures. Cholesterol readily increases ceramide miscibility with glycerophospholipids but cholesterol-ceramide interactions are not involved in the organization of the liquid-ordered phase as exemplified by sphingomyelin/cholesterol mixtures. Sphingomyelin stabilizes the gel phase and thus decreases ceramide miscibility in the presence of cholesterol. Gel/liquid-ordered/liquid-disordered phase coexistence was visualized in quaternary phosphatidylcholine/sphingomyelin/ceramide/cholesterol mixtures as occurrence of dark leaf-like and circular domains within a bright liquid phase. Sphingomyelin initiates specific ceramide-sphingomyelin interactions to form a highly ordered gel phase appearing at temperatures higher than pure ceramide gel phase in phosphatidylcholine/ceramide mixtures. Less sphingomyelin is engaged in formation of liquid-ordered phase leading to a shift in its formation to lower temperatures. Sphingomyelinase activity on substrate vesicles destroys micron L(o) domains but induces the formation of a gel-like phase. The activation of phospholipase A(2) by ceramide on heterogeneous membranes was visualized. Changes in the phase state of the membrane bilayer initiates such morphological processes as membrane fragmentation, budding in and budding out was demonstrated.

The role of sphingomyelin in regulating phase coexistence in complex lipid model membranes: competition between ceramide and cholesterol.

The structure, thermotropic phase behavior, dynamic motion and order parameters of bilayer dispersions of egg phosphatidylcholine, egg sphingomyelin, egg ceramide and cholesterol have been determined. The coexistence of gel, liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered structure has been determined by peak fitting analysis of synchrotron X-ray powder patterns. Order parameters and extent of distribution of 16-doxyl-stearic acid spin probe between ordered and disordered environments has been estimated by ESR spectral simulation methods. The presence of ceramide in proportions up to 20 mol% in phosphatidylcholine is characterized by gel-fluid phase coexistence at temperatures up to 46 degrees C depending on the amount of ceramide. Cholesterol tends to destabilize the ceramide-rich domains formed in phosphatidylcholine while sphingomyelin, by formation of stable complexes with ceramide, tends to stabilize these domains. The stability of sphingomyelin-ceramide complexes is evident from the persistence of highly ordered structure probed by ESR spectroscopy and appearance of a sharp wide-angle X-ray reflection at temperatures higher than the gel-fluid transition of ceramide alone in egg phosphatidylcholine bilayers. The competition between ceramide and cholesterol for interaction with sphingomyelin is discussed in terms of control of lipid-mediated signaling pathways by sphingomyelinase and phospholipase A2.

Detergents induce raft-like domains budding and fission from giant unilamellar heterogeneous vesicles: a direct microscopy observation.

The effect of detergents on giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) composed of phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin and cholesterol and containing liquid-ordered phase (l(o)) domains was investigated. Such domains have been used as models for the lipid rafts present in biological membranes. The studied detergents included lyso-phosphatidylcholine, the product of phospholipase A2 activity, as well as Triton X-100 and Brij 98, i.e. detergents used to isolate lipid rafts as DRMs. Local external injection of each of the three detergents at subsolubilizing amounts promoted exclusion of l(o) domains from the GUV as small vesicles. The budding and fission processes associated with this vesiculation were interpreted as due to two distinct effects of the detergent. In this framework, the budding is caused by the initial incorporation of the detergent in the outer membrane leaflet which increases the spontaneous curvature of the bilayer. The fission is related to the inverted-cone molecular shape of the detergent which stabilizes positively curved structures, e.g. pores involved in vesicle separation. On the other hand, we observed in GUVs neither domain formation nor domain coalescence to be induced by the addition of detergents. This supports the idea that isolation of DRM from biological membranes by detergent-induced extraction is not an artifact. It is also suggested that the physico-chemical mechanisms involved in l(o) domain budding and fission might play a role in rafts-dependant endocytosis in cells.

Structure and thermotropic phase behaviour of detergent-resistant membrane raft fractions isolated from human and ruminant erythrocytes.

Detergent-resistant membrane raft fractions have been prepared from human, goat, and sheep erythrocyte ghosts using Triton X-100. The structure and thermotropic phase behaviour of the fractions have been examined by freeze-fracture electron microscopy and synchrotron X-ray diffraction methods. The raft fractions are found to consist of vesicles and multilamellar structures indicating considerable rearrangement of the original ghost membrane. Few membrane-associated particles typical of freeze-fracture replicas of intact erythrocyte membranes are observed in the fracture planes. Synchrotron X-ray diffraction studies during heating and cooling scans showed that multilamellar structures formed by stacks of raft membranes from all three species have d-spacings of about 6.5 nm. These structures can be distinguished from peaks corresponding to d-spacings of about 5.5 nm, which were assigned to scattering from single bilayer vesicles on the basis of the temperature dependence of their d-spacings compared with the multilamellar arrangements. The spacings obtained from multilamellar stacks and vesicular suspensions of raft membranes were, on average, more than 0.5 nm greater than corresponding arrangements of erythrocyte ghost membranes from which they were derived. The trypsinization of human erythrocyte ghosts results in a small decrease in lamellar d-spacing, but rafts prepared from trypsinized ghosts exhibit an additional lamellar repeat 0.4 nm less than a lamellar repeat coinciding with rafts prepared from untreated ghosts. The trypsinization of sheep erythrocyte ghosts results in the phase separation of two lamellar repeat structures (d=6.00; 5.77 nm), but rafts from trypsinized ghosts produce a diffraction band almost identical to rafts from untreated ghosts. An examination of the structure and thermotropic phase behaviour of the dispersions of total polar lipid extracts of sheep detergent-resistant membrane preparations showed that a reversible phase separation of an inverted hexagonal structure from coexisting lamellar phase takes place upon heating above about 30 degrees C. Non-lamellar phases are not observed in erythrocytes or detergent-resistant membrane preparations heated up to 55 degrees C, suggesting that the lamellar arrangement is imposed on these membrane lipids by interaction with non-lipid components of rafts and/or that the topology of lipids in the erythrocyte membrane survives detergent treatment.

Comparative lipid analysis and structure of detergent-resistant membrane raft fractions isolated from human and ruminant erythrocytes.

The lipid composition and structure of detergent-resistant membrane rafts from human, goat, and sheep erythrocytes is investigated. While the sphingomyelin:cholesterol ratio varied from about 1:5 in human to 1:1 in sheep erythrocytes a ratio of 1:1 was found in all raft preparations insoluble in Triton X-100 at 4 degrees C. Excess cholesterol is excluded from rafts and saturated molecular species of sphingomyelin assayed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry determines the solubility of cholesterol in the detergent. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy shows that vesicles and multilamellar structures formed by membrane rafts have undergone considerable rearrangement from the original membrane. No membrane-associated particles are observed. Synchrotron X-ray diffraction studies showed that d spacings of vesicle preparations of rafts cannot be distinguished from ghost membranes from which they are derived. Dispersions of total polar lipid extracts of sheep rafts show phase separation of inverted hexagonal structure upon heating and this phase coexists with multilamellar structures at 37 degrees C.

Lipid composition of membrane domains.

The isolation of subfractions of cell membranes on the basis of their solubility in non-ionic detergents has led to the discovery of lipid domain structure in membranes. Detergents used for this purpose include Triton, Brij, Lubrol and CHAPS. Different lipid constituents are known to resist solubilization by different detergents and the resulting fractions may associate with different membrane proteins. In general, the detergent-resistant membrane fractions tend to be dominated by saturated molecular species of sphingomyelin and phosphatidylcholine and invariably include significant proportions of cholesterol. The lipid composition is consistent with formation of liquid-ordered phases. The present evidence favours a model in which the lateral segregation of membrane proteins takes place on the basis of their affinity for liquid-ordered lipid domains within the membrane.

Modulation of the phase heterogeneity of aminoglycerophospholipid mixtures by sphingomyelin and monovalent cations: maintenance of the lamellar arrangement in the biological membranes.

The phase behaviour of mixed molecular species of phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and sphingomyelin of biological origin were examined in aqueous co-dispersions using synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The co-dispersions of phospholipids studied were aimed to model the mixing of lipids populating the cytoplasmic and outer leaflets in the resting or "scrambled" activated cell membrane. Mixtures enriched with phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine were characterized by a phase separation of non-lamellar phases (cubic and inverted hexagonal) with a lamellar gel phase comprising the most saturated molecular species. Inclusion of sphingomyelin in the mixture resulted in a suppression of the hexagonal-II phase in favour of lamellar phases at temperatures where a proportion of the phospholipid was fluid. The effect was also dependent on the total amount of sphingomyelin in ternary mixtures, and the lamellar phase dominated in mixtures containing more than 30 mol%, irrespective of the relative proportions of phosphatidylserine/sphingomyelin. A transition from gel to liquid-crystal phase was detected by wide-angle scattering during heating scans of ternary mixtures enriched in sphingomyelin and was shown by thermal cycling experiments to be coupled with a hexagonal-II phase to lamellar transition. In such samples there was evidence of a coexistence of non-lamellar phases with a lamellar gel phase. A transition of the gel phase to the fluid state on heating from 35 to 41 degrees C was evidenced by a progressive increase in the lamellar d-spacing. The presence of calcium enhanced the phase separation of a lamellar gel phase from a hexagonal-II phase in mixtures enriched in phosphatidylserine. This effect was counteracted by charge screening with 150 mM NaCl. The effect of sphingomyelin on stabilizing the lamellar phase is discussed in the context of an altered composition in the cytoplasmic/outer leaflets of the plasma membrane resulting from scrambling of the phospholipid distribution. The results suggest that a lamellar structure can be retained by the inward translocation of sphingomyelin in biological membranes. The presence of monovalent cations serves also to stabilize the bilayer in activated cells where a translocation of aminoglycerophospholipids and an influx of calcium occur simultaneously.

Phospholipase A2 promotes raft budding and fission from giant liposomes.

Cellular processes involving membrane vesiculation are related to cellular transport and membrane components trafficking. Endocytosis, formation of caveolae and caveosomes, as well as Golgi membranes traffic have been linked to the existence and dynamics of particular types of lipid/protein membrane domains, enriched in sphingolipids and cholesterol, called rafts [Nature 387 (1997) 569; Trends Cell Biol. 12 (2002) 296; Biochemistry 27 (1988) 6197]. In addition, the participation of phospholipases in the vesiculation of Golgi and other membranes has been already established [Traffic 1 (2000) 504] essentially in their role in the production of second messenger molecules. In this work we illustrate with raft-containing giant lipid vesicles a mechanism for raft-vesicle expulsion from the membrane due to the activity of a single enzyme-phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)). This leads to the hypothesis that the PLA(2), apart from its role in second messenger generation, might play a direct and general role in the vesiculation processes underlying the intermembrane transport of rafts through purely physicochemical mechanisms. These mechanisms would be: enzyme adsorption leading to membrane curvature generation (budding), and enzyme activity modulation of the line tension at the raft boundaries, which induces vesicle fission.

Cytosolic phospholipase A2-p11 interaction controls arachidonic acid release as a function of epithelial cell confluence.

Madin-Darby canine kidney type II cells were shown to release low amounts of AA (arachidonic acid) and prostaglandin E2 in response to various stimuli when analysed after cell confluence. In contrast, non-confluent Madin-Darby canine kidney type II cells released much higher amounts of AA and prostaglandin E2. In both stationary and non-confluent cells, AA was released by type IV cPLA2 (cytosolic phospholipase A2), as shown by the use of specific inhibitors and by analysis of the profile of fatty acids released. This confluence-dependent cPLA2 activation was not due to a difference in expression, or in phosphorylation of the enzyme, or in the amount of its substrate. To find out the mechanism by which cPLA2 activation may be regulated as a function of cell confluence, immunofluorescence and co-immunoprecipitation experiments were performed using cPLA2, p11, a natural inhibitor of the enzyme, and annexin II, the natural ligand of p11. These three proteins were expressed at a constant level, regardless of the cell confluence. In contrast, whereas annexin II and cPLA2 interacted at a constant rate, p11 and cPLA2 interacted more strongly in stationary cells, thus indicating that cPLA2 activation is regulated by its accessibility to p11, independent of their expression level. Our results indicate that, in epithelial cells, the cell confluence, i.e. the establishment of cell-cell contacts, rather than cell proliferation directly controls cPLA2 activation by changing the stoichiometry of p11/cPLA2 interaction.

Inhibitory effects of surfactant protein A on surfactant phospholipid hydrolysis by secreted phospholipases A2.

Hydrolysis of surfactant phospholipids by secreted phospholipases A(2) (sPLA(2)) contributes to surfactant dysfunction in acute respiratory distress syndrome. The present study demonstrates that sPLA(2)-IIA, sPLA(2)-V, and sPLA(2)-X efficiently hydrolyze surfactant phospholipids in vitro. In contrast, sPLA(2)-IIC, -IID, -IIE, and -IIF have no effect. Since purified surfactant protein A (SP-A) has been shown to inhibit sPLA(2)-IIA activity, we investigated the in vitro effect of SP-A on the other active sPLA(2) and the consequences of sPLA(2)-IIA inhibition by SP-A on surfactant phospholipid hydrolysis. SP-A inhibits sPLA(2)-X activity, but fails to interfere with that of sPLA(2)-V. Moreover, in vitro inhibition of sPLA(2)-IIA-induces surfactant phospholipid hydrolysis correlates with the concentration of SP-A in surfactant. Intratracheal administration of sPLA(2)-IIA to mice causes hydrolysis of surfactant phosphatidylglycerol. Interestingly, such hydrolysis is significantly higher for SP-A gene-targeted mice, showing the in vivo inhibitory effect of SP-A on sPLA(2)-IIA activity. Administration of sPLA(2)-IIA also induces respiratory distress, which is more pronounced in SP-A gene-targeted mice than in wild-type mice. We conclude that SP-A inhibits sPLA(2) activity, which may play a protective role by maintaining surfactant integrity during lung injury.

Ceramides increase the activity of the secretory phospholipase A2 and alter its fatty acid specificity.

Modulation of human recombinant secretory type II phospholipase A(2) activity by ceramide and cholesterol was investigated using model glycerophospholipid substrates composed of phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine dispersed in aqueous medium. Enzyme activity was monitored by measurement of released fatty acids using capillary GC-MS. Fatty acids from the sn-2 position of the phospholipids were hydrolysed by the enzyme in proportion to the relative abundance of the phospholipid in the substrate. Addition of increasing amounts of ceramide to the substrate progressively enhanced phospholipase activity. The increased activity was accomplished largely by preferential hydrolysis of polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly arachidonic acid, derived from phosphatidylethanolamine. The addition of sphingomyelin to the substrate glycerophospholipids inhibited phospholipase activity but its progressive substitution by ceramide, so as to mimic sphingomyelinase activity, counteracted the inhibition. The presence of cholesterol in dispersions of glycerophospholipid-substrate-containing ceramides suppressed activation of the enzyme resulting from the presence of ceramide. The molecular basis of enzyme modulation was investigated by analysis of the phase structure of the dispersed lipid substrate during temperature scans from 46 to 20 degrees C using small-angle synchrotron X-ray diffraction. These studies indicated that intermediate structures created after ceramide-dependent phase separation of hexagonal and lamellar phases represent the most susceptible form of the substrate for enzyme hydrolysis.