Attitudes towards genetic testing: The role of genetic literacy, motivated cognition, and socio-demographic characteristics.

Understanding reasons for why people choose to have or not to have a genetic test is essential given the ever-increasing use of genetic technologies in everyday life. The present study explored the multiple drivers of people's attitudes towards genetic testing. Using the International Genetic Literacy and Attitudes Survey (iGLAS), we collected data on: (1) willingness to undergo testing; (2) genetic literacy; (3) motivated cognition; and (4) demographic and cultural characteristics. The 37 variables were explored in the largest to-date sample of 4311 participants from diverse demographic and cultural backgrounds. The results showed that 82% of participants were willing to undergo genetic testing for improved treatment; and over 73%-for research. The 35 predictor variables together explained only a small proportion of variance: 7%-in the willingness to test for Treatment; and 6%-for Research. The strongest predictors of willingness to undergo genetic testing were genetic knowledge and deterministic beliefs. Concerns about data misuse and about finding out unwanted health-related information were weakly negatively associated with willingness to undergo genetic testing. We also found some differences in factors linked to attitudes towards genetic testing across the countries included in this study. Our study demonstrates that decision-making regarding genetic testing is influenced by a large number of potentially interacting factors. Further research into these factors may help consumers to make decisions regarding genetic testing that are right for their specific circumstances.

Japanese Translation and Validation of Genomic Knowledge Measure in the International Genetics Literacy and Attitudes Survey (iGLAS-GK).

Knowledge of genetics is essential for understanding the results of genetic testing and its implications. Recent advances in genomic research have allowed us to predict the risk of onset of common diseases based on individual genomic information. It is anticipated that more people will receive such estimates of risks based on their genomic data. However, currently, there is no measure for genetic knowledge that includes post-genome sequencing advancements in Japan. In this study, we translated the genomic knowledge measure in the International Genetics Literacy and Attitudes Survey (iGLAS-GK) into Japanese and validated it in a general Japanese adult population (n = 463). The mean score was 8.41 (SD 2.56, range 3-17). The skewness and kurtosis were 0.534 and 0.088, respectively, and the distribution showed a slightly positive skewness. Exploratory factor analysis proposed a six-factor model. Results for 16 of the 20 items of the Japanese version of the iGLAS-GK were comparable to those from previous studies in other populations. These results indicate that the Japanese version is reliable and can be used to measure the genomic knowledge of adults in the general population, and this version of the knowledge measure maintains the multidimensional structure for assessing genomic knowledge.

Persistent gender differences in spatial ability, even in STEM experts.

Background: Spatial ability (SA) shows wide variability. One proposed explanation for the observed individual difference in SA is variability in interest and engagement in activities that promote spatial ability. Research also robustly shown that males on average outperform females in most aspects of SA. Previous studies have identified a number of activities that can potentially contribute to both individual and gender differences in SA, including tinkering with electronics, particular sports activities, and designing. However, the findings regarding these links are inconsistent. One way to investigate these links is to compare the groups that are intensively engaged with these activities. Aim: The present study aims to evaluate the robustness of these links by comparing SA in adolescents with expertise in STEM, arts, and sports, with their unselected peers. We also aimed to assess whether gender differences in SA are still present in expert groups. Methods: The data on ten small-scale SA tests was collected in an unselected sample of adolescents (N = 864, Mean age = 15.4, SD = 1.1); as well as in 3 samples of adolescents with expertise in STEM (N = 667, Mean age = 15, SD = 1.2); in Arts (N = 280, Mean age = 15, SD = 1.2) and in Sports (N = 444, Mean age = 14.3, SD = 0.7). Results: Out of the three expert groups, only STEM experts on average outperformed the unselected group on all SA tasks. The STEM experts also outperformed Arts and Sports experts. Gender differences persisted in all expert groups, with moderate effect sizes. Discussion: Findings support previously established links between spatial ability and STEM-related expertise. In contrast, such links were not found for expertise in arts and sports. Consistent with previous research, we found gender differences in SA for all samples, which persisted in STEM experts.

No evidence of a positive effect of learning Chinese language as an L2 on spatial ability.

Spatial ability (SA) was shown to be a robust predictor of success in various educational contexts, including STEM. Thus, ways to improve SA are of interest to educational psychology. There is some evidence that SA might be improved via learning character-based language, e.g. Chinese as a second language (CSL), however, the existing research is quite limited. The study aims to investigate an effect of CSL learning on SA in schoolchildren from Year 2 to Year 7. Current study employs a sample of Russian schoolchildren (N = 283), who learnt: English only, English and Spanish; or English and Chinese. Participants completed Raven's progressive matrices and Mental rotation task at the age of 8 and again at the age of 14. Our data showed negligible group differences in the initial SA level at Year 2 (before learning second language). Similar negligible differences were found at Year 7. Regression analysis showed that SA was predicted by intelligence (Raven's) and gender but not language learnt at both ages. This pattern of results indicates that learning a Chinese as a second language is unlikely to affect SA. Further research is needed to investigate whether other factors, such as length, intensity and context of learning, moderate this link.

This is the way: Network perspective on targets for spatial ability development programmes.

BACKGROUND: Spatial ability (SA) was shown to be important for success in different fields, including STEM. Recent research suggested that SA is a unitary construct, rather than a set of related skills. However, it is not clear how individual differences in different facets of SA emerge, and how they relate to variance in general cognitive ability. AIMS: The aim of the present study was threefold: 1) to examine the structure of SA testing nine theoretical models; 2) to explore the relation between 16 different facets of SA with general cognitive ability; and 3) to identify central facet(s) within the network of SA - with most links and/or strongest links to other facets. SAMPLE: The study participants were 958 university students from Russia. METHODS: The study used a comprehensive battery of 16 SA tests and a verbal ability measure. RESULTS: Results supported previous research, suggesting moderate overlap between all SA facets. Factor analysis suggested several potential structures, with similar fit indices for five different theoretically driven models, including split into small- and large scale; partially independent manipulation, visualization and navigation facets. Confirmatory factor analysis, mediation and network analyses showed spatial ability being largely independent from verbal ability. In addition, network analysis showed that navigation according to directions is in the centre of the network, potentially linking all SA facets. CONCLUSION: The results have potential implications for identifying the best targets for SA interventions. The next step in research is conducting experimental studies to evaluate effectiveness of interventions targeting navigation in comparison with other facets of SA.

The Jack and Jill Adaptive Working Memory Task: Construction, Calibration and Validation.

Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) is essential to human cognitive abilities and is associated with important life outcomes such as academic performance. Recently, a number of reliable measures of VSWM have been developed to help understand psychological processes and for practical use in education. We sought to extend this work using Item Response Theory (IRT) and Computerised Adaptive Testing (CAT) frameworks to construct, calibrate and validate a new adaptive, computerised, and open-source VSWM test. We aimed to overcome the limitations of previous instruments and provide researchers with a valid and freely available VSWM measurement tool. The Jack and Jill (JaJ) VSWM task was constructed using explanatory item response modelling of data from a sample of the general adult population (Study 1, N = 244) in the UK and US. Subsequently, a static version of the task was tested for validity and reliability using a sample of adults from the UK and Australia (Study 2, N = 148) and a sample of Russian adolescents (Study 3, N = 263). Finally, the adaptive version of the JaJ task was implemented on the basis of the underlying IRT model and evaluated with another sample of Russian adolescents (Study 4, N = 239). JaJ showed sufficient internal consistency and concurrent validity as indicated by significant and substantial correlations with established measures of working memory, spatial ability, non-verbal intelligence, and academic achievement. The findings suggest that JaJ is an efficient and reliable measure of VSWM from adolescent to adult age.

Creative expressiveness in childhood writing predicts educational achievement beyond motivation and intelligence: A longitudinal, genetically informed study.

BACKGROUND: Creativity is linked with educationally relevant constructs such as achievement, intelligence, and motivation. However, very few studies have explored longitudinal links between the constructs or the aetiology of individual differences in childhood creativity. AIMS: The study addresses the gap in the literature of developmental studies on the relationship of creativity with other educationally relevant measures. Additionally, the present study is the first adequately powered genetically informative analysis of childhood creativity. SAMPLE(S): The present study utilized data from 1,306 twins, a subsample from a longitudinal, representative twin sample in the UK. METHODS: Creativity was operationalised as a Creative Expressiveness score, using the Consensual Assessment Technique on stories written by 9-year-olds. Intelligence and writing motivation were assessed at age 9. Academic achievement was collected at ages 9, 12, and 16. RESULTS: Creative Expressiveness was associated with intelligence and motivation, all measured at age 9. It also predicted variance in English grades at ages 9 and 16. The associations were weak, but significant, over and above intelligence, motivation, and earlier English grades. The variance in Creative Expressiveness was explained by genetic (35%), shared environmental (21%), and non-shared environmental (45%) influences. The phenotypic correlations with other study variables were mainly mediated genetically. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide information that can be used for planning educational content. First, creativity can be detected in childhood writing. Second, childhood creativity may be overlooked in early educational assessments. Third, the results from the genetic analyses are important indications on the role of environments in the development of creativity.

What Do People Know About the Heritability of Sleep?

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Twin studies have provided data about the relative weight of genetic and environmental factors on sleep variables over the last few decades. However, heritability is a non-intuitive concept and it is often misunderstood even amongst the scientific community. This study aimed to analyze: (1) understanding of the meaning of heritability of insomnia; (2) the accuracy of estimations of heritability in the general population regarding three sleep traits (sleep duration, sleep quality and insomnia); (3) perceptions of the effectiveness of different treatments for insomnia depending on how the disorder is presented (i.e. having an environmental or genetic etiology) and whether the subject's estimate of genetic influence on sleep traits impacted beliefs about the effectiveness of different treatments. METHODS: Participants (N = 3658) completed a survey which included: questions about general genetic knowledge; a specific question about the meaning of heritability; estimates of heritability of three different sleep traits; and the effectiveness of different treatments for insomnia depending on how the etiology of this condition was presented. RESULTS: Fewer than 25% of the participants selected the correct description of the heritability of insomnia. Almost half of the sample incorrectly believed that heritability refers to the chance of passing a disorder onto their children. We also found that participants provided different estimates for the effectiveness of different treatments depending on the presumed etiology of the disorder. CONCLUSION: Most people do not have accurate knowledge about the concept of heritability. People's assumptions about the etiology of a disorder may influence which treatments they consider most effective.

Measuring Spatial Ability for Talent Identification, Educational Assessment, and Support: Evidence from Adolescents with High Achievement in Science, Arts, and Sports.

Background: Spatial ability (SA) is a robust predictor of academic and occupational achievement. The present study investigated the psychometric properties of 10 tests for measuring of SA in a sample of talented schoolchildren. Objective: Our purpose was to identify the most suitable measurements for SA for the purpose of talent identification, educational assessment, and support. Design: Our sample consisted of 1479 schoolchildren who had demonstrated high achievement in Science, Arts, or Sports. Several criteria were applied to evaluate the measurements, including an absence of floor and ceiling effects, low redundancy, high reliability, and external validity. Results: Based on these criteria, we included the following four tests in an Online Short Spatial Ability Battery "OSSAB": Pattern Assembly; Mechanical Reasoning; Paper Folding; and Shape Rotation. Further analysis found differences in spatial ability across the three groups of gifted adolescents. The Science track showed the highest results in all four tests. Conclusion: Overall, the study suggested that the Online Short Spatial Ability Battery (OSSAB) can be used for talent identification, educational assessment, and support. The analysis showed a unifactorial structure of spatial abilities. Future research is needed to evaluate the use of this battery with other specific samples and unselected populations.

Ordinary extraordinary: Elusive group differences in personality and psychological difficulties between STEM-gifted adolescents and their peers.

BACKGROUND: Individual differences in personality, behavioural, and academic outcomes of gifted adolescents remain under-explored. AIMS: The present study directly compared selected and unselected adolescents on multiple measures of personality, behavioural strengths and difficulties, and achievement. SAMPLE: Nine hundred seventy-three adolescents selected for high performance in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematical (STEM) fields (M = 15.23; SD = 1.11), and one thousand two hundred sixty-one unselected adolescents (M = 15.07; SD = 1.18) participated in the study. METHODS: Participants completed self-report measures that assess the Big Five, the Dark Triad, and Behavioural Strengths and Difficulties. Demographic information and academic achievement in Maths and Russian were also obtained. RESULTS: The observed differences in personality and behaviour traits between selected and unselected samples were negligible as measured by ANOVAs. The selected sample had on average slightly lower scores on conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, and subclinical narcissism, partial Eta Squared (ES) = [.01 to .05]; slightly lower scores on prosocial behaviour; and slightly higher scores on internalizing and externalizing problems, ES = [.01 to .04]. The selected group also showed higher Year and Examination grades (ES = .05 and .23, respectively). However, MANOVA results showed larger differences between samples (ES = .15). CONCLUSION: Our results showed no pronounced differences between selected and unselected samples in any trait apart from examination performance. However, multivariate results suggest greater overall differences. These results suggest that high-achieving individuals may be characterized by specific combinations of personality and behavioural traits.

School quality ratings are weak predictors of students' achievement and well-being.

BACKGROUND: In England, all state-funded schools are inspected by an independent government agency, the Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted). Inspections aim to hold schools accountable and to promote the improvement of education, with the results made available to the public. Ofsted reports intend to index school quality, but their influence on students' individual outcomes has not been previously studied. The aim of the current study was to explore the extent to which school quality, as indexed by Ofsted ratings, is associated with students' educational achievement, well-being and school engagement. METHODS: We use an England population-based sample of 4,391 individuals, for whom school performance at age 11 and GCSE grades at age 16 were accessed from the National Pupil Database, and who completed measures of well-being and school engagement at age 16. RESULTS: We found that Ofsted ratings of secondary school quality accounted for 4% of the variance in students' educational achievement at age 16, which was further reduced to 1% of the variance after we accounted for prior school performance at age 11 and family socioeconomic status. Furthermore, Ofsted ratings were weak predictors of school engagement and student well-being, with an average correlation of .03. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that differences in school quality, as indexed by Ofsted ratings, have little relation to students' individual outcomes. Accordingly, our results challenge the usefulness of Ofsted ratings as guides for parents and students when choosing secondary schools.

Evidence for a unitary structure of spatial cognition beyond general intelligence.

Performance in everyday spatial orientation tasks (e.g., map reading and navigation) has been considered functionally separate from performance on more abstract object-based spatial abilities (e.g., mental rotation and visualization). However, few studies have examined the link between spatial orientation and object-based spatial skills, and even fewer have done so including a wide range of spatial tests. To examine this issue and more generally to test the structure of spatial ability, we used a novel gamified battery to assess six tests of spatial orientation in a virtual environment and examined their association with ten object-based spatial tests, as well as their links to general cognitive ability (g). We further estimated the role of genetic and environmental factors in underlying variation and covariation in these spatial tests. Participants (N = 2660; aged 19-22) were part of the Twins Early Development Study. The six tests of spatial orientation clustered into a single 'Navigation' factor that was 64% heritable. Examining the structure of spatial ability across all 16 tests, three, substantially correlated, factors emerged: Navigation, Object Manipulation, and Visualization. These, in turn, loaded strongly onto a general factor of Spatial Ability, which was highly heritable (84%). A large portion (45%) of this high heritability was independent of g. The results point towards the existence of a common genetic network that supports all spatial abilities.

Judging in the genomic era: judges' genetic knowledge, confidence and need for training.

Genetic information is increasingly used in many contexts, including health, insurance, policing and sentencing-with numerous potential benefits and risks. Protecting from the related risks requires updates to laws and procedures by justice systems. These updates depend to a large extent on what the key stakeholders-the judiciary-know and think about the use of genetic information. This study used a battery of 25 genetic knowledge items to collect data from 73 supreme court judges from the same country (Romania) on their knowledge of genetic information. Their responses were compared with those of two other groups: lawyers (but not judges; N = 94) and non-lawyers (N = 116) from the same country. The data were collected at approximately the same time from the three groups. The judges' results were also compared to the results obtained from a general population data collection (N = 5310). The results showed that: (1) judges had overall better knowledge of genetics than the other groups, but their knowledge was uneven across different genetic concepts; (2) judges were overall more confident in their knowledge than the other two groups, but their confidence was quite low; and (3) the correlation between knowledge and confidence was moderate for judges, weak for lawyers and not significant for non-lawyers. Finally, 100% of the judges agreed that information on gene-environment processes should be included in judges' training. Increasing genetic expertise of the justice stakeholders is an important step towards achieving adequate legal protection against genetic data misuse.

Alpha Band Resting-State EEG Connectivity Is Associated With Non-verbal Intelligence.

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether EEG resting state connectivity correlates with intelligence. One-hundred and sixty five participants took part in the study. Six minutes of eyes closed EEG resting state was recorded for each participant. Graph theoretical connectivity metrics were calculated separately for two well-established synchronization measures [weighted Phase Lag Index (wPLI) and Imaginary Coherence (iMCOH)] and for sensor- and source EEG space. Non-verbal intelligence was measured with Raven's Progressive Matrices. In line with the Neural Efficiency Hypothesis, path lengths characteristics of the brain networks (Average and Characteristic Path lengths, Diameter and Closeness Centrality) within alpha band range were significantly correlated with non-verbal intelligence for sensor space but no for source space. According to our results, variance in non-verbal intelligence measure can be mainly explained by the graph metrics built from the networks that include both weak and strong connections between the nodes.

Genetic factors underlie the association between anxiety, attitudes and performance in mathematics.

Students struggling with mathematics anxiety (MA) tend to show lower levels of mathematics self-efficacy and interest as well as lower performance. The current study addresses: (1) how MA relates to different aspects of mathematics attitudes (self-efficacy and interest), ability (understanding numbers, problem-solving ability, and approximate number sense) and achievement (exam scores); (2) to what extent these observed relations are explained by overlapping genetic and environmental factors; and (3) the role of general anxiety in accounting for these associations. The sample comprised 3410 twin pairs aged 16-21 years, from the Twins Early Development Study. Negative associations of comparable strength emerged between MA and the two measures of mathematics attitudes, phenotypically (~ -0.45) and genetically (~ -0.70). Moderate negative phenotypic (~ -0.35) and strong genetic (~ -0.70) associations were observed between MA and measures of mathematics performance. The only exception was approximate number sense whose phenotypic (-0.10) and genetic (-0.31) relation with MA was weaker. Multivariate quantitative genetic analyses indicated that all mathematics-related measures combined accounted for ~75% of the genetic variance in MA and ~20% of its environmental variance. Genetic effects were largely shared across all measures of mathematics anxiety, attitudes, abilities and achievement, with the exception of approximate number sense. This genetic overlap was not accounted for by general anxiety. These results have important implications for future genetic research concerned with identifying the genetic underpinnings of individual variation in mathematics-related traits, as well as for developmental research into how children select and modify their mathematics-related experiences partly based on their genetic predispositions.

The Impact of Maternal Overweight on Hair Essential Trace Element and Mineral Content in Pregnant Women and Their Children.

The aim of the present study was to investigate hair essential trace elements and mineral levels in 105 pregnant normal-weight (control) and 55 overweight and obese women in the third trimester of pregnancy, as well as in their children at the age of 9 months. The hair essential trace elements and mineral levels were assessed using inductively coupled plasma mass-spectrometry. Overweight pregnant women had significantly reduced Cr (- 24%; p = 0.047) and Zn (- 13%; p = 0.008) content, as well as elevated hair Na and K levels as compared to the controls. Children from overweight and obese mothers had lower hair Mo (- 18%; p = 0.017), Se (- 8%; p = 0.043), and V (- 24%; p = 0.028) levels, as well as elevated Sr content (19%; p = 0.025). Correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship between maternal and child hair levels of Co (r = 0.170; p = 0.038), Cu (r = 0.513; p < 0.001), Mn (r = 0.240; p = 0.003), and Na (r = 0.181; p = 0.027) in the whole sample. Pre-pregnancy maternal body mass index (BMI) positively correlated with maternal hair K (r = 0.336; p < 0.001) and Na (r = 0.212; p = 0.008) and negatively correlated with V (r = - 0.204; p = 0.011) and Zn (r = - 0.162; p = 0.045) levels. The results indicate that impaired trace element and mineral metabolism may play a role in the link between maternal obesity, complications of pregnancy and child's postnatal development. Hypothetically, dietary improvement may be used as a tool to reduce these risks. However, further experimental and clinical studies are required to investigate the relationship between obesity and trace element metabolism in pregnancy.

Predicting maths anxiety from mathematical achievement across the transition from primary to secondary education.

The primary- to secondary-education transition is a substantive life event for many children. The transition can be associated with changes in the developmental trajectories of both emotional health and academic achievement. The current study looked at whether the trajectory of mathematical attainment and emotional health (anxiety) across this transition predicted later maths anxiety. A secondary analysis of data from the Twin Early Development Study (TEDS) was performed. The statistical models were fit on the 753 participants (one from each twin pair) for which there were measures of mathematical performance across the primary- to secondary-education transition and maths anxiety at age 18. Two multi-level growth models were fit predicting mathematical attainment and anxiety over the primary- to secondary-education transition. The intercepts and slopes for each child were extracted from these models and used as predictors of subsequent maths anxiety at age 18. These effects were adjusted for biological sex, socio-economic status, verbal cognitive ability and general anxiety. Maths anxiety at age 18 was significantly predicted by both pre-transition levels of anxiety and mathematical attainment and their rate of change across the primary- to secondary-education transition. However, the effects were small, suggesting that theories of maths anxiety may have overplayed the role of prior mathematical attainment and general anxiety.

To Use or Not to Use: No Consensus on Whether and How to Apply Genetic Information in the Justice System.

Little is known about the public's attitudes towards applying genetic information in the justice system. This study aimed to extend previous research to explore this among the general public and those with training in law. Data were collected from over 10,000 participants, including 486 lawyers and law students. We analysed eight available relevant items from the International Genetic Literacy and Attitudes Survey (iGLAS). The majority of participants viewed genetic information as relevant to justice. For example, 65% believed that we should make provisions (legal and policy) to buffer the effects of genetic disadvantage on individuals, and almost 60% believed that genetic information should be taken into account in sentencing. At the same time, many participants (70%) disagreed that genetic influences on behaviour negate free will. The results of the correlational analyses suggest that people who consider genetic information relevant in one context tend to consider it relevant across all aspects of the justice system, including in sentencing, crime prevention and access to justice. Overall, the results suggest that views on the use of genetics by justice systems are complex and widely varied. Further research is needed to understand these complex views.

Visual and Linguistic Stimuli in the Remote Associates Test: A Cross-Cultural Investigation.

The Remote Associates Test (RAT) is a measure of associative ability, which is often regarded as essential for creative thinking. The most commonly used version of the test is the compound RAT. However, many RAT items do not translate directly in different languages. Additionally, a linguistic measure cannot be used to measure visual associative ability. A visual measure for associative ability that is similar to the RAT would be a useful tool for cross-cultural investigations of creativity. The present study investigated the relationship between the linguistic and a newly developed visual version of RAT in Russian and Finnish native speakers (for both samples n = 67). Both linguistic and visual measures showed good internal reliabilities in both samples (Cronbach's α = 0.73-0.84). The mean score in the visual task was slightly higher for the Finnish sample. The correlation between the two measures was stronger in the Russian sample (r = 0.56) compared to the Finnish sample (r = 0.28). These results are discussed in relation to linguistic and cultural differences between the samples.

Mindfulness and associations with symptoms of insomnia, anxiety and depression in early adulthood: A twin and sibling study.

This study investigated associations between mindfulness and symptoms of insomnia, depression and anxiety. Mindfulness was disaggregated into five subscales: 'nonreactivity to inner experience', 'observing', 'acting with awareness', 'describing' and 'nonjudging of inner experience'. Twin models were used to examine genetic and environmental influences on mindfulness, symptoms of insomnia, depression and anxiety and on their associations. Data came from a longitudinal twin/sibling study (G1219) comprising 862 individuals (age range 22-32 years, 66% females). Less mindfulness was associated with greater symptoms of insomnia, depression and anxiety (r = .22-.48). Of the mindfulness subscales, 'nonjudging of inner experience' was most strongly associated with the other traits. Overall mindfulness was largely influenced by non-shared environmental factors (E = .72) although familial influences played a role for overall mindfulness, as well as for the 'acting with awareness' and 'describing' subscales. The genetic correlations between overall mindfulness and symptoms of insomnia, depression and anxiety ranged from .32 to .75 (but were non-significant), while the shared environmental correlations ranged from -.78 to .79 (also non-significant). The non-shared environmental influences between these three variables were moderately, significantly correlated (rE = .21-.55).