Dual discrepancy/consistency pattern of strengths and weaknesses method of specific learning disability identification: Classification accuracy when combining clinical judgment with assessment data.

The Dual Discrepancy/Consistency (DD/C) pattern of strengths and weaknesses (PSW) method is the most prominent "other alternative research-based procedure" used to identify a specific learning disability (SLD). The DD/C method is intended to be used with multiple data sources, but no research has examined identification decision making using the DD/C PSW analysis of cognitive and academic achievement test scores with other assessment data (e.g., pre-referral intervention data, parent/teacher reports, observations, evaluation of exclusionary factors). This study used an experimental vignette methodology to investigate school psychologists' (N = 343) identification decision making using the DD/C method with multiple data sources. Results showed that school psychologist participants made highly accurate (97.50%) identification decisions when both cognitive and achievement test score patterns and other assessment data were clearly indicative of SLD, but that overall identification accuracy was only 65.60%. Participants made less accurate identification decisions when examining test score data that did not meet DD/C PSW criteria for SLD than when examining test score data that did. Participants made less accurate decisions when other assessment data (interpreted in conjunction with test scores) did not meet DD/C PSW criteria for SLD or were ambiguous than when they did. In addition, male school psychologists were less likely to make accurate identification decisions than female school psychologists, and participants who were Nationally Certified School Psychologists were less likely to make accurate identification decisions than those who were not. Last, more experience with DD/C resulted in less accurate identification decisions, and participants who made accurate decisions reported higher levels of confidence, although the effect size was negligible. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Intelligence and academic achievement in inpatient adolescents with comorbid anxiety and depression.

Few studies have investigated the relationship between comorbid depression and anxiety and cognitive and academic functioning. To understand this relationship, this study used a retrospective chart review from an inpatient facility for 42 adolescents diagnosed with a comorbid anxiety and depressive disorder. Multiple regression was used to determine whether anxiety and depression predicted academic achievement, as well as whether intelligence predicted current levels of anxiety and depression. Results indicated that higher severity of depression was associated with lower reading (ß = -0.39) and writing (ß = -0.40) achievement, while higher severity of anxiety was associated with higher scores on reading (ß = 0.41) and writing (ß = 0.36). Full-scale IQ was not significantly predictive of anxiety severity (ß = 0.08) or depression severity (ß = -0.24). Results are discussed in terms of identifying risk factors and improving outcomes for adolescents with severe comorbid anxiety and depression psychopathology.

An independent examination of the equivalence of the standard and digital administration formats of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-5th Edition.

A new administration format for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014) was introduced in 2016 on Q-interactive, Pearson's digital platform for test administration and scoring. The current study examined the measurement unit equivalence of the WISC-V standard and digital administration formats using counter-balanced administration of the 10 primary subtests to measure intellectual ability. The results indicated that correlations (r) between standard scores on subtests and composites administered in each format were generally moderate, with mean rs of 0.64 for subtests and 0.71 for composites after correction for attenuation, with the lowest rs for processing speed. Split-plot ANOVAs were conducted to examine within-subjects main effects for administration format and order and their interaction. The results of these analyses revealed significant main effects for format for the Full Scale IQ and Processing Speed composite scores, with small to medium effect sizes (ds > 0.40). These format effects largely stemmed from the non-equivalence of the Coding subtest, which is used to derive both composites. For Coding, the main effect for format was statistically significant, with a large effect size (d = 0.69). Statistically significant administration order by format interaction effects were also observed for a number of composites and subtests, with medium to large effect sizes (ƞps2 > 0.20). In each case, higher mean scores were observed when the WISC-V was administered first in digital format. Implications of these results for research and practice are discussed.

Past, present, and future of research in school psychology: The biopsychosocial ecological model as an overarching framework.

Conoley, Powers, and Gutkin (2020) called for an increased emphasis on models of psychological service delivery that are primarily indirect, adult-focused, and geared toward systems-level change in the schools. They asserted that research in school psychology should not focus on the problems of individual children and youth but address the "powerful ecosystems" that surround them. Although school- and system-wide interventions are certainly important and can have a positive impact on student outcomes, we contend that biopsychosocial models of human development that integrate the effects of genetics, personal characteristics and behaviors, environments, and broad social contexts are better frameworks for guiding future research in school psychology. In these models, the role of genetics is mediated by the family environment and broader social contexts to influence variability in cognitive, social-emotional, and behavioral domains of psychological functioning. These individual differences then interact with specific situations, leading to outcomes in educationally relevant behaviors, such as achievement, self-esteem, motivation, and peer relations. The focus of research in school psychology, therefore, should not be on "1 size fits all" school-wide interventions but rather on understanding how and why children and youth differ from one another and on translating research on the effects of genes, the environment, and their interplay into effective educational interventions. Research on bullying and victimization in schools is discussed as an example of the importance of taking a biopsychosocial ecological approach to studying complex behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test-Second Edition: Testing Dimensionality and Invariance Across Age, Gender, Race, and Ethnicity.

This study examined key assumptions underlying the interpretation of one of the most widely used multidimensional nonverbal tests of intelligence, the Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test-Second Edition (UNIT2). Specifically, we examined the dimensionality of the UNIT2 and the interpretive relevance of its factors. We also examined the invariance of constructs measured by the UNIT2 across age groups, gender, race, and ethnicity. Structural analyses were conducted using data from 1,802 individuals aged 5 to 21 years who participated in the norming of the UNIT2. Results indicate that the UNIT2 is primarily a measure of psychometric g. Tests of invariance indicate that the factors measured by the UNIT2 are calibrated differently across age, gender, and racial groups. The Memory, Quantitative, and Reasoning factors represent psychometric g quite well. However, there is insufficient unique, reliable variance for the interpretation of the index scores reflecting the Memory, Quantitative, and Reasoning factors. Based on the results of this study, we question whether the administration of multidimensional nonverbal tests of intelligence is worth the time and effort when unidimensional tests may provide the same information.

A national survey of school psychologists' practices in identifying specific learning disabilities.

This study examined the identification frameworks, specific models, and assessment practices used by school psychologists to identify students with specific learning disabilities (SLD) in public schools in the United States. We surveyed school psychologist practitioners using an online survey, conducted a review of state regulations addressing SLD, and evaluated the effects of state-level policies and school psychologists' characteristics on identification practices. Responses from more than 1,300 school psychologists revealed that multiple SLD identification frameworks are utilized and that state regulations generally have stronger effects on identification practices than do characteristics such as school psychologists' age, highest degree obtained, and years of experience. Frameworks with well-known psychometric limitations, such as those employing intelligence-achievement discrepancy formulas, remain commonly employed. We encourage more and better scientific research into both the conceptual and psychometric outcomes associated with SLD identification frameworks and urge application of evidence-based practices in the assessment and treatment of academic deficits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Group exposure and response prevention for college students with social anxiety: A randomized clinical trial.

OBJECTIVE: Social anxiety increases college student drop-out risk and stifles employment opportunities. Group cognitive-behavioral therapy with exposure (CBT ERP) has the potential to alleviate campus resource strain but remains under-researched with college students. The present study investigated the efficacy of group CBT ERP in a randomized clinical trial on a college campus. METHOD: Thirty-one postsecondary students were randomly assigned to an exposure-only group or an active control. RESULTS: Linear mixed-effects models indicated significant Group × Time interactions for general social anxiety (t = -2.02, g = 0.62) and depression (t = -2.77, g = 0.55); nonsignificant main effects were found for group and time variables. On a measure of fear of negative evaluation, only the main effect of time was significant (t = 2.15, p = 0.032). CONCLUSIONS: When compared to an active control group, CBT ERP is an efficacious and time-effective treatment for college students experiencing social anxiety.

Test use and assessment practices of school psychologists in the United States: Findings from the 2017 National Survey.

Although several studies have examined the specific instruments and procedures used by school psychologists when conducting comprehensive psychoeducational evaluations, the last one was published over 20 years ago (viz., Wilson & Reschly, 1996). Given the substantial theoretical and practical advances in assessment since then, the purpose of the current study was to examine the test use and assessment practices of contemporary school psychologists in the United States. Data from the 2017 National Survey of Assessment Practices in School Psychology revealed that test use and assessment practices have evolved significantly. Much of this change consists of the substitution of tests and practices with limited reliability and validity with those with greater psychometric support. Results of this study also indicate that school psychologists regularly conduct multi-method assessments to prevent, identify, monitor, and remediate child and adolescent learning difficulties and other presenting problems in the schools.

Meta-analysis of the relationship between academic achievement and broad abilities of the Cattell-horn-Carroll theory.

Interpretation of intelligence tests has changed over time, from a focus on the elevation of general ability in the early 1900s, to the shape and/or scatter of subtest and index scores in the mid-1900s to the early 2000s, and back to elevation today. The primary emphasis of interpretation now, however, is widely recommended to be on normative strengths and weaknesses of scores reflecting broad and narrow abilities in the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory (Schneider & McGrew, 2012). Decisions about which abilities are important to assess for the diagnosis of learning difficulties are based largely on literature reviews by Flanagan, Ortiz, Alfonso, and Mascolo (2006) and McGrew and Wendling (2010). These were narrative research syntheses, however, and did not attempt to estimate the magnitude of the relations between CHC abilities and academic achievement. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to conduct a meta-analysis to determine the effect size for these relations across age groups. Results of our analyses found that psychometric g and one or more broad cognitive abilities are substantially related to each area of academic achievement. Across all achievement domains and ages, g had by far the largest effect, with a mean effect size of r2 = 0.540. In fact, psychometric g explained more variance in academic outcomes than all broad abilities combined. Most broad abilities explained less than 10% of the variance in achievement and none explained more than 20%. Some age-related changes in cognitive ability-achievement relations were also observed. In sum, results of our meta-analysis support the interpretation of the overall score on intelligence tests as a measure of psychometric g for diagnosing difficulties in reading and mathematics, but only the interpretation of index scores measuring Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc) when diagnosing difficulties in reading. Implications of these results for research and practice are discussed.

Examining the integrity of measurement of cognitive abilities in the prediction of achievement: Comparisons and contrasts across variables from higher-order and bifactor models.

Prior research examining cognitive ability and academic achievement relations have been based on different theoretical models, have employed both latent variables as well as observed variables, and have used a variety of analytic methods. Not surprisingly, results have been inconsistent across studies. The aims of this study were to (a) examine how relations between psychometric g, Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) broad abilities, and academic achievement differ across higher-order and bifactor models; (b) examine how well various types of observed scores corresponded with latent variables; and (c) compare two types of observed scores (i.e., refined and non-refined factor scores) as predictors of academic achievement. Results suggest that cognitive-achievement relations vary across theoretical models and that both types of factor scores tend to correspond well with the models on which they are based. However, orthogonal refined factor scores (derived from a bifactor model) have the advantage of controlling for multicollinearity arising from the measurement of psychometric g across all measures of cognitive abilities. Results indicate that the refined factor scores provide more precise representations of their targeted constructs than non-refined factor scores and maintain close correspondence with the cognitive-achievement relations observed for latent variables. Thus, we argue that orthogonal refined factor scores provide more accurate representations of the relations between CHC broad abilities and achievement outcomes than non-refined scores do. Further, the use of refined factor scores addresses calls for the application of scores based on latent variable models.

Using estimated factor scores from a bifactor analysis to examine the unique effects of the latent variables measured by the WAIS-IV on academic achievement.

This study used estimated factor scores from a bifactor analysis of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) to examine the unique effects of its latent variables on academic achievement. In doing so, we addressed the potential limitation of multicollinearity in previous studies of the incremental validity of the WAIS-IV. First, factor scores representing psychometric g and 4 group factors representing the WAIS-IV index scales were computed from a bifactor model. Subtest and composite scores for the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Third Edition (WIAT-II) were then predicted from these estimated factor scores in simultaneous multiple regression. Results of this study only partially replicated the findings of previous research on the incremental validity of scores that can be derived from performance on the WAIS-IV. Although we found that psychometric g is the most important underlying construct measured by the WAIS-IV for the prediction of academic achievement in general, results indicated that the unique effect of Verbal Comprehension is also important for predicting achievement in reading, spelling, and oral communication skills. Based on these results, measures of both psychometric g and Verbal Comprehension could be cautiously interpreted when considering high school students' performance in these areas of achievement.

Research productivity and scholarly impact of APA-accredited school psychology programs: 2005-2009.

This study examined the research productivity and scholarly impact of faculty in APA-accredited school psychology programs using data in the PsycINFO database from 2005 to 2009. We ranked doctoral programs on the basis of authorship credit, number of publications, and number of citations. In addition, we examined the primary publication outlets of school psychology program faculties and the major themes of research during this time period. We compared our results with those of a similar study that examined data from a decade earlier. Limitations and implications of this study are also discussed.

Independent examination of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV): what does the WAIS-IV measure?

Published empirical evidence for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) does not address some essential questions pertaining to the applied practice of intellectual assessment. In this study, the structure and cross-age invariance of the latest WAIS-IV revision were examined to (a) elucidate the nature of the constructs measured and (b) determine whether the same constructs are measured across ages. Results suggest that a Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC)-inspired structure provides a better description of test performance than the published scoring structure does. Broad CHC abilities measured by the WAIS-IV include crystallized ability (Gc), fluid reasoning (Gf), visual processing (Gv), short-term memory (Gsm), and processing speed (Gs), although some of these abilities are measured more comprehensively than are others. Additionally, the WAIS-IV provides a measure of quantitative reasoning (QR). Results also suggest a lack of cross-age invariance resulting from age-related differences in factor loadings. Formulas for calculating CHC indexes and suggestions for interpretation are provided.