Cannabinoid-receptor-independent cell signalling by N-acylethanolamines.

Anandamide and other polyunsaturated N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) exert biological activity by binding to cannabinoid receptors. These receptors are linked to G(i/o) proteins and their activation leads to extracellular-signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) activation, inhibition of cAMP-dependent signalling and complex changes in the expression of various genes. Saturated and monounsaturated NAEs cannot bind to cannabinoid receptors and may thus mediate cell signalling through other targets. Here we report that both saturated/monounsaturated NAEs and anandamide (20:4(n-6) NAE) stimulate cannabinoid-receptor-independent ERK phosphorylation and activator protein-1 (AP-1)-dependent transcriptional activity in mouse epidermal JB6 cells. Using a clone of JB6 P(+) cells with an AP-1 collagen-luciferase reporter construct, we found that 16:0, 18:1(n-9), 18:1(n-7), 18:2(n-6) and 20:4(n-6) NAEs stimulated AP-1-dependent transcriptional activity up to 2-fold, with maximal stimulation at approx. 10-15 microM. Higher NAE concentrations had toxic effects mediated by alterations in mitochondrial energy metabolism. The AP-1 stimulation appeared to be mediated by ERK but not JNK or p38 signalling pathways, because all NAEs stimulated ERK1/ERK2 phosphorylation without having any effect on JNK or p38 kinases. Also, overexpression of dominant negative ERK1/ERK2 kinases completely abolished NAE-induced AP-1 activation. In contrast with 18:1(n-9) NAE and anandamide, the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 did not stimulate AP-1 activity and inhibited ERK phosphorylation. The NAE-mediated effects were not attenuated by pertussis toxin and appeared to be NAE-specific, as a close structural analogue, oleyl alcohol, failed to induce ERK phosphorylation. The data support our hypothesis that the major saturated and monounsaturated NAEs are signalling molecules acting through intracellular targets without participation of cannabinoid receptors.

Activation of PAF receptors results in enhanced synthesis of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in immune cells.

The endocannabinoid signaling system is believed to play a down-regulatory role in the control of cell functions. However, little is known about the factors activating endocannabinoid synthesis and which of two known endocannabinoids, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) or N-arachidonoylethanolamine (20:4n-6 NAE, anandamide), is of physiological importance. We approached these questions by studying a possible link between cell activation with 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (platelet-activating factor, PAF) and the generation of 2-AG and anandamide in human platelets and mouse P388D1 macrophages. Human platelets responded to stimulation with the production of various 1- and 2-monoacylglycerols, including 2-AG, whereas stimulation of P388D1 macrophages induced the rapid and selective generation of 2-AG, which was immediately released into the medium. The effect of PAF was receptor mediated, as PAF receptor antagonist BN52021 blocked the effect. The treatment did not change the content of anandamide in either macrophages or platelet-rich plasma. The inhibitors of PI- and PC-specific phospholipases C (U73122 and D609) as well as PI3-kinase inhibitor (wortmannin) attenuated PAF-induced 2-AG production in macrophages. These data suggest a direct role for the endocannabinoid system in controlling immune cell activation status and indicate that 2-AG rather than anandamide is the endocannabinoid rapidly produced in response to proinflammatory stimulation of immune cells.

Dysregulated cannabinoid signaling disrupts uterine receptivity for embryo implantation.

The mechanisms by which synchronized embryonic development to the blastocyst stage, preparation of the uterus for the receptive state, and reciprocal embryo-uterine interactions for implantation are coordinated are still unclear. We show in this study that preimplantation embryo development became asynchronous in mice that are deficient in brain-type (CB1) and/or spleen-type (CB2) cannabinoid receptor genes. Furthermore, whereas the levels of uterine anandamide (endocannabinoid) and blastocyst CB1 are coordinately down-regulated with the onset of uterine receptivity and blastocyst activation prior to implantation, these levels remained high in the nonreceptive uterus and in dormant blastocysts during delayed implantation and in pregnant, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)-deficient mice with implantation failure. These results suggest that a tight regulation of endocannabinoid signaling is important for synchronizing embryo development with uterine receptivity for implantation. Indeed this is consistent with our finding that while an experimentally induced, sustained level of an exogenously administered, natural cannabinoid inhibited implantation in wild-type mice, it failed to do so in CB1(-/-)/CB2(-/-) double mutant mice. The present study is clinically important because of the widely debated medicinal use of cannabinoids and their reported adverse effects on pregnancy.

A sensitive endocannabinoid assay. The simultaneous analysis of N-acylethanolamines and 2-monoacylglycerols.

Mammalian cells produce both N-arachidonoylethanolamine (20:4n-6 NAE, anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), lipid signaling molecules that activate cannabinoid receptors. Because both agonists occur in the presence of receptor-inactive congeners, we have developed a sensitive method for the simultaneous assay of N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and 2-monoacylglycerols (2-MAG). These lipid classes are isolated from total lipids by solid phase extraction and converted to tert-butyldimethylsilyl (tBDMS) derivatives in the presence of deuterated analogs. The tBDMS derivatives are analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry using selected ion monitoring programs specific for NAE and 2-MAG. Individual NAEs and 2-MAGs can be quantified in the nanogram and subnanogram range. The NAE and 2-MAG compositions of rat organs and cultured JB6 cells are reported.

Biosynthesis and turnover of anandamide and other N-acylethanolamines in peritoneal macrophages.

Polyunsaturated N-acylethanolamines (NAEs), including anandamide (20:4n-6 NAE), elicit a variety of biological effects through cannabinoid receptors, whereas saturated and monounsaturated NAEs are inactive. Arachidonic acid mobilization induced by treatment of intact mouse peritoneal macrophages with Ca2+ ionophore A23187 had no effect on the production of NAE or its precursor N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine (N-acyl PE). Addition of exogenous ethanolamine resulted in enhanced NAE synthesis by its N-acylation with endogenous fatty acids, but this pathway was not selective for arachidonic acid. Incorporation of (18)O from H2 (18)O-containing media into the amide carbonyls of both NAE and N-acyl PE demonstrated a rapid, constitutive turnover of both lipids.

Alternative pathways of anandamide biosynthesis in rat testes.

We have investigated the biosynthesis of long-chain N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) from endogenous substrates in rat testes membranes with special emphasis on anandamide (20:4n-6 NAE), a cannabinoid receptor agonist. Incubation of various membrane preparations with 5 mM Ca2+ produced both N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine (N-acyl PE) and NAE with primarily (approximately 85%) N-palmitoyl groups (16:0 NAE) and less than 2% 20:4n-6 NAE. In contrast, incubation of these membranes with 5 mM EGTA and 10 mM ethanolamine had little effect on N-acyl PE composition but yielded NAEs whose major constituent (32-37%) was anandamide. Incubations with [1,1,2,2,-2H4]ethanolamine in media containing 40% H2(18)O showed that the Ca(2+)-independent NAE synthesis occurred by direct condensation of ethanolamine with free fatty acids present in the membrane preparation. This biosynthetic activity occurred at ethanolamine concentrations as low as 50 microM and exhibited substrate selectivity for arachidonate which increased with increasing ethanolamine concentrations. The results of inhibitor experiments suggest that the Ca(2+)-independent NAE synthesis was catalyzed by the NAE amidohydrolase acting in reverse. This condensation reaction could be important in agonist-induced anandamide synthesis for cell signalling through cannabinoid receptors.

Production and physiological actions of anandamide in the vasculature of the rat kidney.

The endogenous cannabinoid receptor agonist anandamide is present in central and peripheral tissues. As the kidney contains both the amidase that degrades anandamide and transcripts for anandamide receptors, we characterized the molecular components of the anandamide signaling system and the vascular effects of exogenous anandamide in the kidney. We show that anandamide is present in kidney homogenates, cultured renal endothelial cells (EC), and mesangial cells; these cells also contain anandamide amidase. Reverse-transcriptase PCR shows that EC contain transcripts for cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptors, while mesangial cells have mRNA for both CB1 and CB2 receptors. EC exhibit specific, high-affinity binding of anandamide (Kd = 27.4 nM). Anandamide (1 microM) vasodilates juxtamedullary afferent arterioles perfused in vitro; the vasodilation can be blocked by nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibition with L-NAME (0.1 mM) or CB1 receptor antagonism with SR 141716A (1 microM), but not by indomethacin (10 microM). Anandamide (10 nM) stimulates CB1-receptor-mediated NO release from perfused renal arterial segments; a similar effect was seen in EC. Finally, anandamide (1 microM) produces a NO-mediated inhibition of KCl-stimulated [3H]norepinephrine release from sympathetic nerves on isolated renal arterial segments. Hence, an anandamide signaling system is present in the kidney, where it exerts significant vasorelaxant and neuromodulatory effects.

Anandamide and other N-acylethanolamines in mouse peritoneal macrophages.

N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine (N-acyl PE) and free N-acylethanolamine (NAE) in mouse peritoneal macrophages were identified and quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) of tertbutyldimethylsilyl derivatives in the presence of internal standards synthesized from [1,1,2,2-2H4]ethanolamine. N-acyl PE was present at a level of 123-187 pmol/mumol lipid P (521-768 pmol/10(8) cells), with arachidonic acid making up about 3-4% of the N-acyl moieties. NAE, on the other hand, was present at a level of only 17-30 pmol/mumol lipid P (70-121 pmol/10(8) cells), with N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) making up less than 1% of total NAE. Use of deuterium labeled internal standards and optimization of GC-MS conditions makes it possible to detect as little as 0.1 ng of saturated and 1 ng (3 pmol) of polyunsaturated NAEs in a lipid extract. The present method can be used to determine agonist-induced changes in the levels and compositions of N-acyl PE and NAE.

Changes in anandamide levels in mouse uterus are associated with uterine receptivity for embryo implantation.

Anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine) is an endogenous ligand for both the brain-type (CB1-R) and spleen-type (CB2-R) cannabinoid receptors. This investigation demonstrates that the periimplantation mouse uterus contains the highest levels of anandamide (142-1345 pmol/micromol lipid P; 1-7 microg/g wet weight) yet discovered in a mammalian tissue. The levels fluctuate with the state of pregnancy; down-regulation of anandamide levels is associated with uterine receptivity, while up-regulation is correlated with uterine refractoriness to embryo implantation. Anandamide levels are highest during the nonreceptive phase in the pseudopregnant uterus and in the interimplantation sites, and lowest at the site of embryo implantation. The lower levels of uterine anandamide at the implantation sites may be a mechanism by which implanting embryos protect themselves from the detrimental effects of this endogenous ligand. We also observed a reduced rate of zona-hatching of blastocysts in vitro in the presence of anandamide, and inhibition of implantation by systemic administration of a synthetic cannabinoid agonist CP 55,940. These adverse effects were reversed by SR141716A, a specific CB1-R antagonist. Taken together, the results suggest that an aberrant synthesis of anandamide and/or expression of the cannabinoid receptors in the uterus/embryo may account for early pregnancy failure or female infertility.

Occurrence and postmortem generation of anandamide and other long-chain N-acylethanolamines in mammalian brain.

Long-chain N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) were assayed in pig, sheep and cow brain by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of their tert.-butyldimethylsilyl derivatives in the presence of deuterium-labeled internal standards. Immediately after death, total NAEs ranged from about 2.7 micrograms/g wet weight (sheep, cow) to 6.5 micrograms/g wet weight (pig) and consisted almost exclusively (99%) of saturated and monounsaturated species. Anandamide (20:4n-6 NAE) comprised about 1% of total NAE in pig and cow brain, but was absent in freshly extracted sheep brain. When pig brain was analysed after 0.5, 1, 3, 4 and 23 h at ambient temperature, NAE levels were found to increase substantially over the entire time period with 20:4n-6 NAE formation exhibiting a time lag compared to that of saturated and monounsaturated NAEs.

Inhibition of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter by pure and impure ruthenium red.

Commercial ruthenium red is often purified by a single recrystallization as described by Luft, J.H. (1971) Anat Rec 171, 347-368, which yields small amounts of material having an apparent molar extinction coefficient of approximately 67,400 at 533 nm. A simple modification to the procedure dramatically improves the yield, allowing crystallization to be repeated. Three times recrystallized ruthenium red has an apparent extinction coefficient of approximately 85,900, the highest value reported to date. Both crude and highly purified ruthenium red can be shown to inhibit reverse activity of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter (uncoupled mitochondria), provided that care is taken to minimize and account for Ca2+ release through the permeability transition pore. Crude ruthenium red is 7-10 fold more potent than the highly purified material in this regard, on an actual ruthenium red concentration basis. The same relative potency is seen against forward uniport (coupled mitochondria), however, the I50 values are 10 fold lower for both the crude and purified preparations. These data demonstrate unambiguously that the energy state of mitochondria affects the sensitivity of the Ca2+ uniporter to ruthenium red preparations, and that both the forward and reverse reactions are subject to complete inhibition. The data suggest, however, that the active inhibitor may not be ruthenium red per se, but one or more of the other ruthenium complexes which are present in ruthenium red preparations.

A comparison of phospholipid degradation by oxidation and hydrolysis during the mitochondrial permeability transition.

The peroxidation and hydrolysis of mitochondrial phospholipids has been examined under conditions which are referable to induction of the permeability transition by t-butylhydroperoxide. Over a 30-min time course, the peroxide causes formation of 0.3 nmol/mg protein of malondialdehyde. This value is little effected by Ca2+, Sr2+, or Mn2+ but is increased approximately fivefold by Fe2+. The latter cation, but not the others, results in malondialdehyde formation in the absence of added peroxide. Partially oxidized phosphatidylethanolamine is present in normal mitochondria and is increased by approximately 50% following t-butylhydroperoxide treatment; however, the amounts observed are in the range of 0.4-0.6 mol% of total phosphatidylethanolamine. The minor degradation by peroxidation is in contrast to approximately 2.5 mol% degradation which occurs by hydrolysis. This degree of hydrolysis is accompanied by mitochondrial swelling and Mg2+ release, while a comparable level of peroxidation (malondialdehyde formation) is not. It is concluded that induction of the permeability transition by t-butylhydroperoxide does not represent damage to the membrane lipid phase caused by peroxidation. It is possible, however, that peroxidation accelerates the accumulation of phospholipid hydrolysis products and is thereby a factor which favors the transition.

Smoking as a risk factor in noise-induced hearing loss.

We studied the relationship between cigarette smoking and hearing loss among 2,348 noise-exposed white male participants in a hearing conservation program at an aerospace company. Comparisons of risk factors were based on two definitions of hearing loss. In the first, cases were defined as those subjects in the top third of the hearing loss distribution (at 3, 4, and 6 kHz) for their age category, and controls were those subjects in the lowest third of the distribution. The crude relative risks for smokers were significantly elevated (ever smoker: odds ratio = 1.27, p = .02; present smoker: odd ratio = 1.39, P = .002) compared with never smokers. Simultaneous evaluation of several risk factors using multiple logistic regression methods indicated that the effects of smoking, having a noisy hobby, and years worked at the plant were independent factors for hearing loss. Statistically significant trends in risk were observed for the number of pack-years of smoking (P = .007) and current packs per day consumption in present smokers (P = .009). In the second definition, hearing loss cases were defined according to National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health criteria for beginning impairment. By using multiple logistic regression, present smoking was a statistically significant independent predictor of impairment. These results suggest that smokers are at increased risk of noise-induced hearing loss.

Persistent stimulation of lens fiber cell Na,K-ATPase by sodium thiocyanate.

The Na,K-ATPase partially purified from porcine lens fiber cells (Sen and Pfeiffer, 1982) is stimulated fourfold (specific activity) by treatment with sodium thiocyanate. The optimum conditions are 1.5 M NaSCN, 2 mg protein ml-1 reaction mixture, pH 7.0, with incubation continued for 30 min at 23 degrees C. Sodium docecyl sulphate-gel electrophoresis and [3H]ouabain binding studies indicate that the extent of purity is not increased significantly by the procedure. The high-activity preparation has elevated phospholipid:protein and phosphatidylethanolamine:sphingomyelin ratios compared with the deoxycholate-extracted starting material. The cholesterol:phospholipid ratio and phospholipid acyl group composition are not significantly altered by SCN- treatment. Measurements of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene fluorescence polarization show that SNC- treatment produces approximately a 5 degrees C decrease in a membrane phase transition temperature. The phase transition also affects the activation energy of the Na,K-ATPase reaction and probably reflects the onset of the gel to liquid crystalline transition rather than the midpoint location of the transition per se. p-Nitrophenylphosphatase activity and Na,K-ATPase activity in the gel state membrane are also increased by SCN- treatment. Increased specific activity may result, in part, from a membrane fluidity-dependent enzyme activation but is also due, in part, to the expression of latent enzyme activity. Using ouabain-binding data and the specific activity of the activated preparation, it can be shown that the turnover number of the fiber cell enzyme is approximately 1% of that observed in most other tissues.