Basic amino acid residues in the V3 loop of simian immunodeficiency virus envelope alter viral coreceptor tropism and infectivity but do not allow efficient utilization of CXCR4 as entry cofactor.

In contrast to human immunodeficiency viruses type 1 and type 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2, respectively), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVmac) rarely uses CXCR4 (X4) for efficient entry into target cells. Basic amino acid residues in the V3 loop of HIV Env allow efficient coreceptor utilization of X4. Therefore, we investigated if similar changes in the SIVmac Env protein also mediate a coreceptor switch from CCR5 (R5) to X4. Functional analysis revealed that none of eight SIVmac variants, containing V3 regions with an overall charge between +4 and +10, efficiently utilized X4 as entry cofactor. Nonetheless, these alterations had differential effects on SIV coreceptor tropism and on Env expression levels. A single amino acid substitution of L328R, located near the tip of the V3 loop, resulted in grossly reduced Env expression levels and impaired viral infectivity. Notably, additional basic residues restored efficient Env expression and virion incorporation but not infectivity. In comparison to the L328R mutation, changes of P334K and D337K had little disruptive effects on SIVmac entry and replication. Interestingly, mutation of L320K and P321R disrupted coreceptor usage of GPR15 but not R5. These changes also impaired SIVmac replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) derived from a Delta32/Delta32 donor but not in R5-expressing human or simian PBMC. Our results show that positively charged amino acid residues in the V3 loop affect SIVmac coreceptor tropism and infectivity but do not allow efficient utilization of X4.

Modulation of different human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Nef functions during progression to AIDS.

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Nef protein has several independent functions that might contribute to efficient viral replication in vivo. Since HIV-1 adapts rapidly to its host environment, we investigated if different Nef properties are associated with disease progression. Functional analysis revealed that nef alleles obtained during late stages of infection did not efficiently downmodulate class I major histocompatibility complex but were highly active in the stimulation of viral replication. In comparison, functional activity in downregulation of CD4 and enhancement of HIV-1 infectivity were maintained or enhanced after AIDS progression. Our results demonstrate that various Nef activities are modulated during the course of HIV-1 infection to maintain high viral loads at different stages of disease progression. These findings suggest that all in vitro Nef functions investigated contribute to AIDS pathogenesis and indicate that nef variants with increased pathogenicity emerge in a significant number of HIV-1-infected individuals.

Simian immunodeficiency virus utilizes human and sooty mangabey but not rhesus macaque STRL33 for efficient entry.

It has been established that many simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) isolates utilize the orphan receptors GPR15 and STRL33 about as efficiently as the chemokine receptor CCR5 for entry into target cells. Most studies were performed, however, with coreceptors of human origin. We found that SIV from captive rhesus macaques (SIVmac) can utilize both human and simian CCR5 and GPR15 with comparable efficiencies. Strikingly, however, only human STRL33 (huSTRL33), not rhesus macaque STRL33 (rhSTRL33), functioned efficiently as an entry cofactor for a variety of isolates of SIVmac and SIV from sooty mangabeys. A single amino acid substitution of S30R in huSTRL33 impaired coreceptor activity, and the reverse change in rhSTRL33 greatly increased coreceptor activity. In comparison, species-specific sequence variations in N-terminal tyrosines in STRL33 had only moderate effects on SIV entry. These results show that a serine residue located just outside of the cellular membrane in the N terminus of STRL33 is critical for SIV coreceptor function. Interestingly, STRL33 derived from sooty mangabeys, a natural host of SIV, also contained a serine at the corresponding position and was used efficiently as an entry cofactor. These results suggest that STRL33 is not a relevant coreceptor in the SIV/macaque model but may play a role in SIV replication and transmission in naturally infected sooty mangabeys.

Coreceptor usage of BOB/GPR15 and Bonzo/STRL33 by primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1.

Primary isolates of human and simian immunodeficiency viruses (HIV and SIV) use the chemokine receptor CCR5, in association with CD4, as coreceptor. During AIDS progression, HIV-1 and HIV-2 often adapt to use additional cofactors, particularly CXCR4. In contrast, SIV isolates do not use CXCR4, but other coreceptors such as BOB/GPR15 and Bonzo/STRL33. Only limited information is currently available on usage of BOB/GPR15 and Bonzo/STRL33 by HIV-1. Therefore, we investigated a panel of gp160 clones from 15 primary isolates, representing 5 different subtypes, for utilization of these cofactors. The majority of HIV-1 envelopes mediated entry into BOB/GPR15-expressing cells, albeit often with low efficiency. Usage of Bonzo/STRL33 was less common and usually inefficient. To investigate if HIV-1 entry via these orphan receptors is sufficient to allow virus replication, 15 uncloned primary HIV-1 isolates and 7 molecular clones were used to infect target cells expressing CD4 and Bonzo/STRL33 or BOB/GPR15. Three primary isolates and two molecular clones replicated efficiently in cells expressing BOB/GPR15. Two of these isolates were X4-tropic, two were R5X4-tropic and one was R5-tropic. In contrast, none of the HIV-1 variants showed significant levels of replication in Bonzo/STRL33-expressing cells. Our data show that some HIV-1 isolates of different genetic subtype and of different biological phenotype use BOB/GPR15 for productive infection and suggest that this cofactor may play a role in HIV-1 pathogenesis and transmission.

Transient changes of the conformation of hemagglutinin of influenza virus at low pH detected by time-resolved circular dichroism spectroscopy.

Membrane fusion of influenza virus is mediated by a conformational change of the viral membrane protein hemagglutinin (HA) triggered by low pH. By near UV CD spectroscopy, which is sensitive to the arrangement and mobility of aromatic amino acids in proteins, we have monitored continuously with a time resolution of 5 s the kinetics of structural alterations of the ectodomain of HA isolated from different influenza virus strains (H1 (A/PR 8/34), H2 (A/Japan), and H3 (X31)). To establish a functional correlation to structural alterations of the HA ectodomain reflected by the CD, we have measured the kinetics of the virus-erythrocyte fusion and of the inactivation of fusion by low pH preincubation of viruses. At acidic pH we found a multiphasic behavior of the CD signal recorded at 283 nm. Upon lowering the pH we detected first an increase of the CD amplitude, which is associated with the formation of a fusion-competent state of HA. The initial increase was followed by a continuous decline of CD amplitude, which can be ascribed to a transformation into a fusion-inactivated conformation that is in its early phase reversible as found for A/Japan. The half-time of the different phases of the CD signal depended on the virus strain, the temperature, and the acidic pH. The results support recent hypotheses that the fusion-competent conformation is an intermediate of the fusion-inactivated structure of HA.

Assessment of fusogenic properties of influenza virus hemagglutinin deacylated by site-directed mutagenesis and hydroxylamine treatment.

Influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) subtype H7 expressed from a baculovirus vector in insect cells requires cysteine residues for palmitoylation. Mutant HA devoid of fatty acids shows hemagglutinating and hemolytic activities almost identical to those of the acylated wild-type HA (wt). Using a membrane mixing assay (R18), neither the kinetics nor the pH dependence of fusion induced by wt or mutant HA was significantly different from virus-induced fusion. HA-induced fusion of insect cells with human erythrocyte ghosts could also be demonstrated by a cytoplasmic content mixing assay. Both species of recombinant HA induced the flow of lucifer yellow from preloaded ghosts into the cytoplasm of HA-bearing cells. This indicates that membrane fusion mediated by wild-type and fatty-acid-free HA includes both leaflets of the lipid bilayers. Hydroxylamine treatment of wt HA (H7) and fatty-acid-free mutant HA present in lysates of insect cells led to the complete inhibition of hemolytic activity. Deacylation of spike proteins by NH2OH treatment of virus particles resulted in a block of hemolytic activity in influenza virus subtypes H7 and H10 as well as of that in the togaviruses Semliki Forest and Sindbis virus. However, the same treatment did not affect subtypes H2 and H3 or two vesicular stomatitis virus serotypes. With such a differential effect whether or not fatty acids are present in the spike proteins of the different virus particles, hydroxylamine must have other effects than just deacylation, and therefore seems unsuitable for the study of the biological functions of acylproteins.

Transient domains induced by influenza haemagglutinin during membrane fusion.

During low pH-induced fusion of influenza virus with erythrocytes we have observed differential dispersion of viral lipid and haemagglutinin (HA) into the erythrocyte membrane, and viral RNA into the erythrocyte using fluorescence video microscopy. The movement of both viral lipid and HA from virus to cell was restricted during the initial stages of fusion relative to free diffusion. This indicates the existence of relatively long-lived barriers to diffusion subsequent to fusion pore formation. Fluorescence anisotropy of phospholipid analogues incorporated into the viral membrane decreased when the pH was lowered to levels required for optimum fusion. This indicates that the restricted motion of viral membrane components was not due to rigidification of membrane lipids. The movement of HA from the fusion site was also assessed by photosensitized labelling by means of a fluorescent substrate (NBD-taurine) passing through the band 3 sialoglycoprotein (the erythrocyte anion transporter). We also examined the flow of lipid and aqueous markers during fusion of HA-expressing cells with labelled erythrocytes. During this cell-cell fusion, movement of lipid between fusing membranes begins before the fusion pore is wide enough to allow diffusion of aqueous molecules (M(r) > 500). The data indicate that HA is capable of creating domains in the membrane and controlling continuity of aqueous compartments which are bounded by such domains.

Kinetics of the low pH-induced conformational changes and fusogenic activity of influenza hemagglutinin.

The decrease of the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence intensity of purified influenza (X31 strain) hemagglutinin (HA) was used to monitor the low pH-induced conformational change of this protein. The kinetics of the fluorescence decrease depended strongly on the pH. At pH optimal for fusion, the change in tryptophan fluorescence was fast and could be fitted to a monoexponential function. We measured a rate constant of 5.78 s-1 (t1/2 = 120 ms) at pH 4.9 using rapid stopped-flow mixing. Under suboptimal conditions (higher pH), the rate constant was decreased by an order of magnitude. In addition, a slow component appeared and the fluorescence decrease followed a sum of two exponentials. The kinetics of conformational changes were compared with those of the fusion of influenza virus with red blood cell membranes as assessed by the R18-dequenching assay. At optimal pH the HA conformational change was not rate-limiting for the fusion process. However, at sub-optimal pH, the slow transition to the fusogenic conformational of HA resulted in slower kinetics and decreased extent of fusion.

Detection of influenza hemagglutinin interaction with biological membranes by photosensitized activation of [125I]iodonaphthylazide.

Fusion of influenza virus with cells is triggered by a pH-dependent conformational change in the viral envelope protein, hemagglutinin, which results in exposure of the fusion peptide and its insertion into the target membrane. We have investigated the association of hemagglutinin with erythrocyte membranes by photosensitized labeling with [125I]iodonaphthylazide. This technique relies on the collisional energy transfer from a photosensitizing chromophore to [125I]iodonaphthylazide, which selectively labels proteins in the vicinity of the chromophore. Incubation of influenza virus with erythrocyte membranes containing chromophore and [125I]iodonaphthylazide results in labeling of hemagglutinin under fusogenic conditions (pH 5 and 37 degrees C). We also examined photosensitized labeling of hemagglutinin upon incubation of the X31 strain of influenza virus with labeled erythrocyte membranes in a pre-fusion state (pH 5 and 4 degrees C). There was little hemagglutinin labeling under these conditions, although incubation of bromelain-cleaved hemagglutinin, which lacks the transmembrane region, resulted in rapid labeling. Hemagglutinin was also labeled by [125I]iodonaphthylazide photosensitized by a fluorescent substrate transported through the erythrocyte band 3 sialoglycoprotein. Hemagglutinin labeling decreased after an initial rapid rise, suggesting that the fusion site is close to the sialoglycoprotein and that [125I]iodonaphthylazide photosensitized labeling may be used to assay protein movement during fusion.

Intermediates in influenza virus PR/8 haemagglutinin-induced membrane fusion.

The fusion kinetics with erythrocyte ghosts of two influenza A virus strains, A/Aichi/2/68 (X:31) and A/PR/8/34 (PR/8), were compared and correlated with the kinetics of haemagglutinin (HA) conformational change. Previously it had been shown that X:31 fuses with liposomes or erythrocytes at 4 degrees C, pH 5 after a lag time of 5 to 10 min whereas PR/8 displayed no fusion with liposomes at that temperature. We have confirmed the absence of cold fusion by PR/8 with erythrocyte ghosts. In contrast to X:31, PR/8 could not be committed to fuse at neutral pH and 37 degrees C by a preincubation at low pH and 4 degrees C. To examine whether the lack of commitment and cold fusion were due to a failure of PR/8 HA to undergo conformational changes at low temperature and pH, we analysed susceptibility of HA to proteinase K digestion, liposome binding to the virus, and immunoprecipitations of HA with conformation-specific antibodies. Although there was little binding of PR/8 to liposomes at 4 degrees C and pH 5, we did observe exposure of the fusion peptide. This study reveals a low temperature intermediate in membrane fusion exhibited by the HA of influenza virus strain PR/8, which involves low pH-induced conformational changes including exposure of the fusion peptide with little interaction of HA with the target membrane.

Characterization of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine liposome aggregates induced by dextran sulfate and La(3+) by fluorescence spectroscopy.

The addition of dextran sulfate (DS) to DMPC vesicles in the presence of di- and trivalent cations leads to a strong aggregation, resulting in a stack-like arrangement of the opposing membrane surfaces as shown by freeze-fracture electron microscopy. The strong aggregation is connected with a lipid mixing process, especially in the presence of La(3+) (measured by the NBD/Rh assay). The extent of lipid mixing depends on the molecular weight of DS and size of the DMPC vesicles. Additionally, a decrease in the surface dielectric constant of DMPC vesicles [measured by the emission shift of the fluorescent probe, dansylphosphatidyl-ethanolamine (DPE)] was observed. A direct dependence on the molecular weight (MW) of DS exists: the higher their MW, the higher the blue emission shift of the DPE probe. The results are discussed in terms of the theory proposed by Ohki and Arnold, which connects the decrease of the surface dielectric constant with the interaction parameters of phospholipid membranes.

A new approach to measure fusion activity of cloned viral envelope proteins: fluorescence dequenching of octadecylrhodamine-labeled plasma membrane vesicles fusing with cells expressing vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein.

Fusion between fluorescently labeled plasma membrane vesicles (PMV) and cells expressing vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) glycoprotein (G-protein) was investigated by utilizing a lipid mixing assay based on fluorescence dequenching of octadecyl rhodamine (R18). The PMVs were prepared from Vero cells by hypotonic lysis. The G-protein was expressed on the cell surface either following infection with intact VSV or with an adenovirus vector (AdG12) containing the gene for the G-protein. Fusion was temperature and pH dependent and was inhibited by VSV G-antiserum. The pH dependence of PMV fusion paralleled that observed for VSV-cell fusion and VSV-induced syncytia formation. The kinetics of fusion followed an exponential dependence on time without an observable time lag after lowering pH. These findings indicate that dequenching R18-labeled PMV reliably represents the basic features of fusion of VSV with cells and can be used as a new tool in the study of fusion activity of virus envelope proteins expressed in cells.

The fluidity of DOPC bilayers and membrane fractions prepared from murine plasmacytoma cells is unchanged after incorporation of pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane) as assessed by fluorescence polarization analysis.

The nature of the plasmacytomagenic activity of pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane) is poorly defined. However, evidence for tumor promoting properties of pristane has recently come forward that includes direct cellular effects on B lymphocytes; i.e., the plasmacytoma precursor cell. Bly et al. (Cancer Biochem. Biophys. 11, 1990, 145-154) observed changed membrane fluidities in lymphocytes after administration of pristane in vivo. We measured steady-state fluorescence polarization using DPH (1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene) and APCL (1-acyl-2-[12-(9-anthryl)-11-trans-dodecenoyl]-sn-glycero-3- phosphocholine) as probes in DOPC (L-alpha-dioleoylphosphatidylcholin) model membranes and membrane fractions derived from plasmacytoma cells after incorporation of pristane in vitro. In a previous investigation, we verified the in vitro uptake of pristane into DOPC bilayers under the conditions employed here (Gawrisch and Janz, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1070, 1991, 409-418). However, neither in DOPC bilayers nor in plasmacytoma membrane fractions could we detect changes in fluorescence polarization after in vitro incorporation of pristane within reasonable error limits. Therefore, we suggest that the observed alterations in membrane fluidity in lymphocytes from pristane-treated animals are the indirect result of the in vivo treatment but not a direct effect of pristane on membrane fluidity.

Dextran sulfate inhibits fusion of influenza virus and cells expressing influenza hemagglutinin with red blood cells.

The influence of dextran sulfate with molecular weights of 500,000 and 8000 on binding and fusion of influenza virus (X31 strain) and of cells expressing influenza hemagglutinin (GP4F) with red blood cells (RBC) was investigated by spectrofluorimetry using virus and RBC labeled with the fluorescent dye octadecyl rhodamine B (R18). There was no significant inhibition of binding of virus and GP4F cells to red blood cells by dextran sulfate, but the polymer strongly inhibited the low pH induced fusion. Virus-RBC fusion was completely blocked by the high molecular weight dextran sulfate at concentrations as low as 0.5 mg/ml. Inhibition of RBC-GP4F cell fusion by dextran sulfate in the same concentration range was not as pronounced but the effect was potentiated by Ca2+. The polymer was only inhibitory when added at early steps of the fusion reaction, but the pH-induced conformational change of the hemagglutinin was not affected by dextran sulfate as measured by its susceptibility to proteolytic digestion. Removal of dextran sulfate after low pH-requiring steps allowed the system to fuse at neutral pH indicating that the inhibitory effect requires the continuous presence of dextran sulfate during the fusion reaction.

Modification of low density lipoproteins by sodium hypochlorite.

Human low density lipoproteins (LDL) were incubated with increasing amounts of sodium hypochlorite. A decrease of the number of free amino groups on the LDL surface starts only upon addition of 30-40 moles NaOCl per mole apoB, whereas all detectable SH groups are oxidized after addition of nearly 17-20 moles NaOCl. All hypochlorite-modified LDL samples have a higher electronegative surface charge compared with native LDL as revealed by agarose gel electrophoresis and partition of LDL in an aqueous polyethylene glycol/dextran two-phase system. The more NaOCl is used to alter LDL, the higher is the electrical surface charge. Changes in surface charge are found already at low NaOCl concentrations where no decrease of amino groups is detected. It is assumed that changes in surface charge are caused by the formation of monochloramines and especially at low degrees of modification by a further unknown contribution. An effect on the primary structure of apoB or peroxidation-like changes in NaOCl-altered LDL could not be found under our experimental conditions. The results are discussed with respect to such modifications under in vivo conditions by hypochlorous acid generated in stimulated phagocytosing cells.

Interaction of dextran sulfate with phospholipid surfaces and liposome aggregation and fusion.

The binding of dextran sulfate to phospholipid liposomes was investigated by microelectrophoresis experiments. The polyanion binds to neutral phospholipid liposomes (DMPC and PE) only in the presence of Ca2+. If positively charged stearylamine is incorporated in the vesicles dextran sulfate is bound without Ca2+. Negatively charged phospholipids as PS do not bind dextran sulfate, even in the presence of millimolar concentrations of Ca2+. The adsorption of dextran sulfate results in an aggregation of vesicles due to a bridging mechanism. In all cases the aggregation is followed by a disaggregation toward higher dextran sulfate concentrations. The disaggregation process starts at polymer concentrations smaller than the concentration of the onset of saturation of the adsorption. By use of the probe dilution method a fusion of small DMPC and DMPC/PE vesicles in the presence of Ca2+ and dextran sulfate was found.

Microelectrophoresis studies of the binding of glycosaminoglycans to phosphatidylcholine liposomes.

The binding of the glycosaminoglycans (GAG) chondroitin sulfate and heparin and the homologous molecule dextran sulfate to multilamellar dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine (DMPC), dilaureyl phosphatidylcholine (DLPC) and egg lecithin liposomes was investigated by microelectrophoresis measurements. Drastic changes of the zeta potential of the liposomes to negative values indicate the binding of the highly anionic macromolecules. Binding depends strongly on Ca2+ and NaCl concentrations in the medium and does not occur in the absence of Ca2+. The adsorption is saturated at concentrations of about 0.1 mg/ml chondroitin sulfate and heparin and 0.01 mg/ml dextran sulfate. In the gel state of the phospholipid bilayer more GAG can associate with the surface compared to the fluid state.

Characterization of chemical modifications of surface properties of low density lipoproteins.

Low density lipoproteins (LDL) were modified by incubation with formaldehyde and malondialdehyde and by autoxidation. Different methods were developed to measure alterations of surface properties of LDL. A method based on fluorescamine fluorescence was used to measure changes of free amino groups. All modified LDL samples have a decreased number of amino groups. As shown by gel electrophoresis, the negative surface charge of LDL increases. Aggregation of LDL induced by poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is influenced by LDL modification. The PEG 6000 concentration necessary for LDL aggregation is shifted to higher values for modified LDL due to the increased negative surface charge. This result may be of interest for the application of PEG for selective separation of different classes of lipoproteins. The formation of aggregates of LDL induced by dextran sulphate is reduced due to the loss of positive charges of amino groups on the LDL surface.