Exposure to bioaerosols in the selected agricultural facilities of the Ukraine and Poland - a review.

The aim of this work was to review the studies on bioaerosols which were carried out in the years 1972-2009 in following branches of agricultural industry in the Ukraine and Poland: animal farms for cows and pigs, animal feed facilities, production of biofuel from rape, herb farms and herb processing facilities. In all facilities were determined: concentration of dust and microorganisms in the air and species composition of microflora. Moreover, in Polish animal farms, herb farms and herb processing facilities, as well as in the Ukrainian animal feed facilities, was determined the concentration of bacterial endotoxin in the air. Dust concentrations in animal farms located in the Ukraine and Poland ranged from 6-200 mg/m(3) and from 0.25-14.05 mg/m(3), respectively, while in animal feed facilities they ranged from 35-306 mg/m(3) and from 3.8-405 mg/m(3), respectively. Dust concentrations in the facilities producing biofuel from rape in the Ukraine were in the range 3.6-28 mg/m(3), whereas on herb farms and in herb processing facilities in Poland they were in the range 0.8- 1,319.6 mg/m(3), and 2.2-946 mg/m(3), respectively. The determined values exceeded in most cases the maximal acceptable concentration (MAC) which in the Ukraine and Poland is equal to 4 mg/m(3). The concentrations of microorganisms on animal farms located in the Ukraine and Poland ranged from 5.5 x 10(4)- 1.9 x 10(7) cfu/m(3) and from 4.7 x 10(4)-1.5 x 10(6) cfu/m(3), respectively, while in animal feed facilities they ranged from 2.7 x 10(4)-2.6 x 10(9) cfu/m(3) and from 1.7 x 10(3)-2.0 x 10(6) cfu/m(3), respectively. Concentrations of microorganisms in the facilities producing biofuel from rape in the Ukraine were in the range 1.5 x 10(3)-5.7 x 10(6) cfu/m(3), whereas on herb farms and in herb processing facilities in Poland they were in the ranges of 8.8 x 10(2)-8.0 x 10(6) cfu/m(3), and 9.7 x 10(3)-6.3 x 10(5) cfu/m(3), respectively. The determined values exceeded in most cases the maximal acceptable concentration (MAC) which in the Ukraine is equal to 5.0 x 10(4) cfu/m(3). The concentrations of endotoxin in Polish animal houses were in the range 0.00125-75.0 ug/m(3), whereas on herb farms and herb processing facilities they were in the ranges of 0.0045- 2,448.8 ug/m(3) and 0.2-681.0 ug/m(3), respectively, and in the Ukrainian animal feed facilities were within the range 0.008-240.0 ug/m(3). They exceeded in most cases the level of 0.2 ug/m(3) proposed as a threshold. In the air microflora of examined facilities prevailed Gram-positive bacteria (corynebacteria, cocci, spore-forming bacilli, actinomycetes) of which some (Arthrobacter spp., thermophilic actinomycetes) could be a cause of allergic alveolitis (hypersensitivity pneumonitis). Among Gram-negative bacteria isolated from the air of agricultural settings dominated the epiphytic species Pantoea agglomerans, possessing potent allergenic and endotoxic properties. Fungi were abundant in the air of the Ukrainian agricultural settings and comprised species able to produce harmful mycotoxins. In conclusion, the airborne biological factors in stated concentrations may exert harmful effects on the state of the health of exposed workers. Formation of the bioaerosol depends on the specificity of the setting, kind of technological operations, degree of mechanization, properties of processed materials, temperature and humidity, and concentration of dust in the air.

Respiratory disorders in two workers of customs depositories occupationally exposed to mouldy tobacco.

Work-related respiratory symptoms, including dyspnoea, cough, fever, tiredness and malaise, were recorded in two customs officers employed in 2 depositories of confiscated cigarettes, of which one showed signs of dampness. Microbiological sampling of the air and the cigarettes stored in a damp depository revealed the presence of potentially pathogenic fungi and bacteria and the biochemical markers of bacterial lipopolysaccharide and fungal biomass. The Penicillium species (P. simplicissimum, P. inflatum, P. commune) dominated in the damp depository, while in the other one Aspergillus fumigatus was prevalent. The patients under study did not show a specific sensitization to microbial allergens in the precipitin test, the test for inhibition of leukocyte migration and the bronchial provocation challenge, except for a weak reaction to fungal allergens in the test for inhibition of leukocyte migration. Moreover, one patient responded with subjective symptoms after exposure to inhalation of increased doses of Penicillium simplicissimum antigen. Both cases were diagnosed as a specific form of organic dust toxic syndrome (ODTS). It is hypothesized that the symptoms were evoked most probably by the non-specific action of low molecular fungal metabolites, such as mycotoxins or VOCs (volatile organic compounds), with the possible contribution of bacterial endotoxin. However, as there is no a direct proof to support this presumption, and the effects of nicotine and other tobacco constituents cannot be excluded, further studies are needed to elucidate etiopathogenesis of the disorders associated with the exposure to stored tobacco.

Identification of bacterial and fungal components in tobacco and tobacco smoke.

The microbiological composition of tobacco products was studied using culture and chemical analysis (of tobacco leaves) or chemical analysis only (tobacco and tobacco smoke). The chemical analyses utilized gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for determining 3-hydroxy fatty acids, muramic acid, and ergosterol as markers of respectively lipopolysaccharide (LPS), peptidoglycan, and fungal biomass. Mesophilic bacteria dominated in both fresh and cured tobacco leaves; a range of additional bacteria and fungi were also found albeit in minor amounts. The peptidoglycan and LPS concentrations were approximately the same in tobacco leaves as in cigarette tobacco. The concentrations of the measured microbial components were much lower in some cigarettes locally produced in China, Korea, and Vietnam than in cigarettes of international brands purchased in the same countries, and the concentrations in the smoke were in general agreement with the concentrations in cigarette tobacco. No differences in microbial load in tobacco of "light" and "full flavor" cigarettes were seen. Storing cigarettes at high humidity resulted in elevated levels of fungi in the cigarette tobacco leading to increased ergosterol concentrations in the smoke. The fact that tobacco smoke is a bioaerosol may help to explain the high prevalence of respiratory disorders among smokers and non-smokers exposed to second hand smoke since the same symptoms are also commonly associated with exposure to bioaerosols.

Levels of fungi and mycotoxins in the samples of grain and grain dust collected from five various cereal crops in eastern Poland.

During combine harvesting of 5 various cereal crops (rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, corn) 24 samples of grain and 24 samples of settled grain dust were collected on farms located in the Lublin province of eastern Poland. The samples were examined for the concentration of total microfungi, Fusarium species, deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and ochratoxin A (OTA). Microfungi able to grow on malt agar were present in 79.2% of grain samples and in 91.7% of grain dust samples in the concentrations of 1.0-801.3x10(3) cfu/g and 1.5-12440.0x10(3) cfu/g, respectively. The concentration of microfungi in grain dust samples was significantly greater than in grain samples (p<0.01). Fusarium strains were isolated from 54.2% of grain samples and from 58.3% of grain dust samples in the concentrations of 0.1-375.0x10(3) cfu/g and 4.0-7,700.0x10(3) cfu/g, respectively. They were found in all samples of grain and grain dust from rye, barley and corn, but only in 0-16.7% of samples of grain and grain dust from oats and buckwheat. DON was found in 79.2% of grain samples and in 100% of grain dust samples in the concentrations of 0.001-0.18 microg/g and 0.006-0.283 microg/g, respectively. NIV was detected in 62.5% of grain samples and in 94.4% of grain dust samples in the concentrations of 0.004-0.502 microg/g and 0.005-0.339 microg/g, respectively. OTA was detected in 58.3% of grain samples and in 91.7% of grain dust samples in the concentrations of 0.00039- 0.00195 microg/g and 0.00036-0.00285 microg/g, respectively. The concentrations of DON, total fusariotoxins (DON+NIV) and OTA were significantly greater in grain dust samples than in grain samples (p<0.05, p<0.05, and p<0.001, respectively). The concentration of Fusarium poae in the samples of rye grain and dust was significantly correlated with the concentrations of DON (p<0.05), NIV (p<0.01), and total fusariotoxins (p<0.05). Similarly, the concentration of Fusarium culmorum in the samples of barley grain and dust was significantly correlated with the concentration of total fusariotoxins (p<0.05). A significant correlation was also found between the concentration of total fungi grown on malt agar and the concentration of OTA (p<0.05). In conclusion, although the concentration of DON, NIV and OTA in the samples of grain dust collected from 5 various cereals on farms in eastern Poland was not large, the persistent presence of these mycotoxins in over 90% of examined samples poses a potential health risk of chronic respiratory intoxication for exposed grain farmers.

Exposure to airborne microorganisms, dust and endotoxin during processing of valerian roots on farms.

The aim of this study was to determine the levels of microorganisms, dust and endotoxin in the air during various stages of valerian (Valeriana officinalis) roots processing by herb farmers and to examine the species composition of airborne microflora. Air samples were collected on glass fibre filters by use of personal samplers on 15 farms owned by valerian cultivating farmers, located in Lublin province (eastern Poland). The concentrations of total viable microorganisms (bacteria + fungi) in the air showed a marked variability and were within a range of 0.95-7,966.6 x 10(3) cfu/m (3). Though median was relatively low (10.75 x 10(3) cfu/m (3)), on 4 farms the concentrations exceeded the level of 10(5) cfu/m (3) and on 1 farm the level of 10(6) cfu/m (3). During the processing of valerian roots, distinct changes could be observed in the composition of airborne microflora. In the first stages of processing, the freshly dug and washed roots until shaking in the drying room, the most numerous were Gram-negative bacteria of the family Pseudomonadaceae (mostly Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Pseudomonas chlororaphis and Pseudomonas fluorescens). After drying, the dominant organisms were thermo-resistant endospore-forming bacilli (Bacillus spp.) and fungi, among which prevailed Aspergillus fumigatus. Altogether, 29 species or genera of bacteria and 19 species or genera of fungi were identified in the farm air during valerian processing, of these, 10 and 12 species or genera respectively were reported as having allergenic and/or immunotoxic properties. The concentrations of airborne dust and endotoxin on the examined farms were very large and ranged from 10.0-776.7 mg/m (3), and from 0.15-24,448.2 microg/m (3), respectively (medians 198.3 mg/m (3) and 40.48 microg/m (3)). In conclusion, farmers cultivating valerian could be exposed during processing of valerian roots to large concentrations of airborne microorganisms, dust and endotoxin posing a risk of work-related respiratory disease.

Exposure of Indian agricultural workers to airborne microorganisms, dust and endotoxin during handling of various plant products.

Microbiological air sampling with the use of personal sampler was performed in 14 small agricultural facilities located in Aurangabad (Southern India), including 5 farms (at harvesting and threshing), 6 godowns (small food storing and processing settings) and 3 grain or cotton mills. In 12 facilities, including harvesting on farms, godowns and mills, concentrations of airborne microorganisms were relatively low, ranging from 1.5 x 10(3) - 8.2 x 10(4) cfu/m(3). The striking rise in the concentrations of airborne microbes, by 2-4 orders of magnitude, was noted on 2 farms during threshing of maize (4.2 x 10(6) cfu/m(3)) and pearl millet (1.1 x 10(7) cfu/m(3)). This was due to release of large quantities of bacteria. During threshing of maize, the most common microorganisms were thermophilic actinomycetes (40 % of the total count) and mesophilic actinomycetes of the genus Streptomyces (39 %), while during threshing of pearl millet the most abundant were corynebacteria (68 %) and Gram-negative bacteria (22 %). Mesophilic bacteria formed 16.7-100 % of the total airborne microflora and were prevalent in 11 out of 14 facilities. Thermophilic actinomycetes and fungi formed respectively 0-43.1 % and 0-83.3 % of the total count and were prevalent in 1 and 2 facilities. The concentrations of airborne dust and endotoxin recorded in the examined agricultural facilities, in most cases were very large and ranged from 2.5-257.5 mg/m(3), and from 0.0625-125.0 microg/m(3), respectively. In 10 out of 14 facilities, the concentrations of dust were of the order 10(1)-10(2) mg/m(3), ranging from 25.0-257.5 mg/m(3). Similarly, in 7 out of 14 facilities the concentrations of endotoxin were of the order 10(1)-10(2) microg/m(3), ranging from 31.25-125.0 microg/m(3). In conclusion, Indian agricultural workers could be exposed during handling of various plant materials to airborne biological hazards posing a risk of work-related respiratory disease. Of these, the most important are: bacterial endotoxin and allergenic species of bacteria and fungi. The greatest risk occurs at threshing of pearl millet and maize which requests an application of the appropriate prevention measures, such as wearing respirators by the workers and using modern threshing machines reducing the dustiness.

Exposure to airborne microorganisms, dust and endotoxin during processing of peppermint and chamomile herbs on farms.

The aim of this study was to determine the levels of microorganisms, dust and endotoxin in the air during processing of peppermint (Mentha piperita) and chamomile (Matricaria recutita) by herb farmers, and to examine the species composition of airborne microflora. Air samples were collected on glass fibre filters by use of personal samplers on 13 farms owned by herb cultivating farmers, located in Lublin province (eastern Poland). The concentrations of total viable microorganisms (bacteria + fungi) in the farm air during processing of peppermint herb were large, within a range from 895.1-6,015.8 x 10(3) cfu/m(3) (median 1,055.3 x 10(3) cfu/m(3)). During processing of chamomile herb they were much lower and varied within a range from 0.88-295.6 x 10(3) cfu/m(3) (median 27.3 x 10(3) cfu/m(3)). Gram-negative bacteria distinctly prevailed during processing of peppermint leaves, forming 46.4-88.5 % of the total airborne microflora. During processing of chamomile herb, Gram-negative bacteria were dominant at 3 out of 6 sampling sites forming 54.7-75.3 % of total microflora, whereas at the remaining 3 sites the most common were fungi forming 46.2-99.9 % of the total count. The species Pantoea agglomerans (synonyms: Erwinia herbicola, Enterobacter agglomerans ), having strong allergenic and endotoxic properties, distinctly prevailed among Gram-negative isolates. Among fungi, the most common species was Alternaria alternata. The concentrations of airborne dust and endotoxin determined on the examined herb farms were large. The concentrations of airborne dust during peppermint and chamomile processing ranged from 86.7-958.9 mg/m(3), and from 1.1-499.2 mg/m(3), respectively (medians 552.3 mg/m(3) and 12.3 mg/m(3)). The concentrations of airborne endotoxin determined during peppermint and chamomile processing were within a wide range 1.53-208.33 microg/m(3) and 0.005-2604.19 microg/m(3) respectively (medians 57.3 microg/m(3) and 0.96 microg/m(3)). In conclusion, farmers cultivating peppermint are exposed during processing of this herb to large concentrations of airborne microorganisms, dust and endotoxin posing a risk of work-related respiratory disease. The exposure to bioaerosols during processing of chamomile is lower; nevertheless, peak values create a respiratory risk for exposed farmers.

Exposure to bioaerosols: allergic reactions and respiratory function in Polish hop growers.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of work-related symptoms in hop growers and their relation to bioaerosols exposure. The study group comprised 69 hop growers and 58 office workers as controls. The examination included: physician-administrated questionnaire, PEF measurements, skin prick test, agar-gel precipitation test, and migration inhibition test. Microbiological air sampling was performed on all farms. RESULTS: The concentrations of total airborne microflora ranged from 2.08 to 129.6 x 10(3) CFU/m3. Airborne endotoxin and dust concentrations ranged from 26 to 6250 ng/m3 and 0.2-31.7 mg/m3, respectively. Altogether 52.2% of farmers complained of work-related symptoms. Positive skin reactions to microbial allergens were significantly more frequent in a group of hop growers with work-related respiratory symptoms compared to the rest of the farmers (18% vs 2%, P <0.05). Positive reactions in agar-gel precipitation test and in the leukocyte migration inhibition test were not correlated with the occurrence of work-related symptoms. The mean daily PEF values in farmers were lower compared to controls (469.7 +/- 127.5 vs 562.9 +/- 123.8; P <0.001). PEF (amp%mean) was higher in farmers compared to controls (9.3% vs 8.1%; P <0.05). CONCLUSION: Despite relatively lower exposure to bioaerosols, compared to farmers in other branches of agriculture, over 50% of hop growers complained of work-related symptoms. This may be partly due to the effects of microbial allergens and toxins and partly to the irritant or allergic properties of hop plant itself.

Exposure of hop growers to bioaerosols.

Air sampling was performed during picking and sorting of hop (Humulus lupulus) cones on 19 hop farms located in eastern Poland. The concentration and composition of airborne microflora and the concentration of airborne dust and endotoxin were determined. Additionally, 7 samples of settled hop dust were collected and examined for the presence of microorganisms and endotoxin. Total concentrations of airborne microorganisms were within a range of 2.08-129.58 x 10(3) cfu/m(3). Gram-positive bacteria formed 22.2-96 % of the total count. Among them, prevailed corynebacteria and endospore-forming bacilli. Fungi constituted 3.7-65.4 % of the total count. The dominant species were Penicillium citrinum, Alternaria alternata, and Cladosporium epiphyllum. Thermophilic actinomycetes and Gram-negative bacteria were detected in the air of only 10 and 6 farms, respectively. Airborne dust concentrations at the workplace ranged from 0.17-31.67 mg/m(3). The concentrations of airborne endotoxin were in the range of 26-6250 ng/m(3). In the samples of settled dust, the concentrations of total microorganisms ranged from 0.25 x 10(6) to 2.87 x 10(8) cfu/g. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria constituted respectively 3.2-98 % and 0-93.5 % of the total count. Fungi formed 0-30.3 % of the total count. The most common species were Penicillium spp. and Alternaria alternata. The concentrations of endotoxin were in the range of 312.5-6250 microg/g (median 6250 microg/g). The presence of microorganisms and endotoxin in the samples of settled dust was confirmed by electron microscopy. The hop growers seem to be exposed to lower concentrations of dust, microorganisms and endotoxin compared to other branches of agriculture. This may be partly due to antimicrobial properties of hop plant. Among microbial factors associated with hop dust, bacterial endotoxin and allergenic fungi pose the greatest potential hazard for exposed hop farmers.

Exposure to airborne microorganisms, dust and endotoxin during flax scutching on farms.

Microbiological air sampling was performed on 5 flax farms located in eastern Poland. Air samples for determination of the concentrations of microorganisms, dust and endotoxin were collected in barns during machine scutching of flax stems by the farmers. The concentrations of mesophilic bacteria ranged from 203.5-698.8 x 10(3) cfu/m3, of Gram-negative bacteria from 27.2-123.4 x 10(3) cfu/m3, of thermophilic actinomycetes from 0.5-2.6 x 10(3) cfu/m3, and of fungi from 23.4-99.8 x 10(3) cfu/m3. The concentrations of total airborne microorganisms (bacteria + fungi) were within a range of 245.0-741.0 x 10(3) cfu/m3. The values of the respirable fraction of total airborne microflora on the examined farms were between 45.5-98.3%. Corynebacteria (irregular Gram-positive rods, mostly Corynebacterium spp.) were dominant at all sampling sites, forming 46.8-67.8% of the total airborne microflora. Among Gram-negative bacteria, the most numerous species was Pantoea agglomerans (synonyms: Erwinia herbicola, Enterobacter agglomerans), known to have strong endotoxic and allergenic properties. Among fungi, the allergenic species Alternaria alternata prevailed. Altogether, 25 species or genera of bacteria and 10 species or genera of fungi were identified in the farm air during flax scutching; of these, 11 and 6 species or genera respectively were reported as having allergenic and/or immunotoxic properties. The concentrations of airborne dust ranged within 43.7-648.1 mg/m3 (median 93.6 mg/m3), exceeding on all farms the Polish OEL value of 4 mg/m3. The concentrations of airborne endotoxin ranged within 16.9-172.1 microg/m3 (median 30.0 microg/m3), exceeding at all sampling sites the suggested OEL value of 0.2 microg/m). In conclusion, flax farmers performing machine scutching of flax could be exposed to large concentrations of airborne microorganisms, dust and endotoxin, posing a risk of work-related respiratory disease.

Exposure to bioaerosols in a municipal sewage treatment plant.

Microbiological air sampling was performed in a medium-size sewage treatment plant processing municipal wastewater from a city located in eastern Poland. Air samples for determination of the concentrations of viable mesophilic bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, thermophilic actinomycetes, fungi and endotoxin were collected at 12 sites associated with various phases of sewage treatment process. The concentrations of total mesophilic bacteria (both Gram-positive and Gram-negative) were within a range of 2.4-70.7 x 10(2) cfu/m(3). Gram-positive coryneform bacteria and cocci were dominant, forming respectively 56.6 % and 24.0 % of the total count. The concentrations of Gram-negative bacteria, thermophilic actinomycetes, and fungi were respectively within ranges of 0.2-5.7 x 10(2) cfu/m(3), 0-0.5 x 10(2) cfu/m(3), and 0.24-1.4 x 10(2) cfu/m(3). Among Gram-negative bacteria, commonly occurred Enterobacter cloacae (17.3 % of the total count), followed by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus (16.2 %), Pseudomonas spp. (14.0 %) and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (11.1 %). Among thermophilic actinomycetes prevailed Thermoactinomyces thalpophilus (47.2 %) and Thermoactinomyces vulgaris (22.2 %), while among fungi, Geotrichum candidum (32.2 %), Penicillium spp. (20 %), Cladosporium lignicola (12.2 %), and Alternaria alternata (10.4 %). Altogether, 20 potentially pathogenic species or genera of bacteria and fungi were identified in the air samples taken in the examined plant. The values of the respirable fraction of airborne microflora varied within a fairly wide range and were between 24.1-100 %. The concentrations of airborne endotoxin were in the range of 0.104-5.2 ng/m(3). In conclusion, the concentrations of microorganisms and endotoxin in the examined municipal sewage treatment plant were low and did not exceed proposed occupational exposure limit values. A moderate risk for the workers may be associated with the presence of potentially pathogenic microbial species having allergenic and/or immunotoxic properties.

[Filamentous fungi and mycotoxins as potential occupational risk factors among farmers harvesting various crops]. / Grzyby plesniowe i mikotoksyny jako potencjalne czynniki zagrozenia zawodowego rolników sprzatajacych zboze kombajnami.

The studies to determine the level of filamentous fungi and mycotoxins were carried out in samples of grain and grain dust during threshing of cereals by a combine harvester. High concentration of fungi was noted in grain and grain dust samples, it ranged from 5.0 to 520.0 cfu/g.10(3) and from 275.0 to 2825.0 cfu/g.10(3), respectively Allergizing and toxigenic fungi of Alternaria, Geotrichum, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium species were observed in the study samples of grain and grain dust. In the samples of wheat grain, mycotoxins were also noted: moniliformin (MON), deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA); their concentrations ranged from 0.025 to 0.088 microgram/g; 0.015-0.068 microgram/g; and from 0.0004 to 0.0008 microgram/g, respectively. The level of mycotoxins in the grain dust samples was within the range of 0.025-0.149 microgram/g-MON; 0.015-0.215 microgram/g-DON; 0.015-0.360 microgram/g-NIV; and 0.0004-0.0012 microgram/g-OTA. A significant correlation was observed between the occurrence of fungi of Fusarium species and the concentration of pathologic mycotoxins. The results confirm a considerable occupational risk among farmers engaged in grain threshing due to inhalation of pathogenic species of filamentous fungi and mycotoxins.

Exposure to airborne microorganisms and endotoxin in a potato processing plant.

Microbiological air sampling was performed in a big potato processing plant located in eastern Poland. Air samples for determination of concentrations of microorganisms, dust and endotoxin were collected at 6 sites in the division producing potato flakes and meal from dried potato pulp and at 2 sites in the division producing potato syrup from imported starch. The concentrations of total airborne microorganisms were within a range of 28.3-93.1 x 10(3) cfu/m(3). Mesophilic bacteria were dominant at all sampling sites, forming 73.1-98.8% of the total count. Among them, distinctly prevailed corynebacteria (irregular Gram-positive rods) that accounted for 54.3-81.1% of the total airborne microflora. The most common were strains of Corynebacterium spp., followed by strains of Arthrobacter spp., Microbacterium spp., and Agromyces ramosus. The latter species, so far not reported from the air of occupational environments, abundantly develops in the parenchyma of potato tubers. Its airborne concentration increased rapidly after peeling of potatoes, and attained maximal values at cutting and blanching (steaming and sulfuration) of potatoes, and at sacking of potato meal. The proportions of Gram-negative bacteria and endospore-forming bacilli were low, respectively 0.6-7.6% and 2.0-8.1% of total count. Fungi constituted 1.2-26.9% of total count. The dominant species was Aspergillus niger that formed 99.8% of total airborne fungi. The values of the respirable fraction of airborne microflora varied between 25.3-73.2%. The concentrations of airborne dust were 1.4-26.6 mg/m(3) in the division producing potato flakes and meal and 114.9-200.5 mg/m(3) at pouring of potato and corn starch for syrup. The concentrations of airborne endotoxin were in the range of 0.011-0.089 microg/m(3) during the initial stages of potato processing (unloading, washing, peeling) and drastically increased after blanching to the extraordinarily high levels of 45.9-1893.9 microg/m(3). At pouring of starch for syrup, the concentrations of airborne endotoxin were much lower, within a range of 0.029-0.156 microg/m(3). In conclusion, the workers of potato processing facilities could be exposed to large concentrations of microorganisms, dust and endotoxin posing a risk of work-related respiratory disease.

Precipitin response of potato processing workers to work-related microbial allergens.

Serum samples from 61 potato processing workers and 30 urban dwellers not exposed to organic dusts (as a reference group) were examined in agar-gel precipitation test performed by Ouchterlony double diffusion method with the antigens of 12 microorganisms associated with organic dusts. Each serum was tested twice: not concentrated, and three-fold concentrated, for the detection of low levels of precipitins. The antibody response of workers to the antigen of coryneform bacterium Agromyces ramosus was high, at both not concentrated and 3-fold concentrated sera (respectively 29.5% and 45.9%)--significantly greater than in reference group (p < 0.001). Workers' response to the antigens of Gram-negative bacterium Alcaligenes faecalis and thermophilic actinomycete Thermoactinomyces vulgaris was lower (respectively 13.1% and 13.1% at not concentrated sera, 24.6% and 29.5% at 3-fold concentrated sera) but in all cases significantly greater than in reference group (p < 0.05 at not concentrated sera, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001 at 3-fold concentrated sera). The frequency of positive precipitin reactions of potato workers to antigen of Penicillium citrinum was high only at 3-fold concentrated sera (55.7%)--significantly higher compared to reference group (p < 0.001). The antibody response of potato workers to other antigens was either unspecific or low, showing no significant difference compared to reference group. Twenty eight out of 61 examined potato processing workers (45.9%) reported the occurrence of the work-related pulmonary symptoms. The frequency of positive precipitin reactions to Agromyces ramosus, Alcaligenes faecalis, Thermoactinomyces vulgaris, Penicillium citrinum and Acinetobacter calcoaceticus was significantly greater in the subgroup of 28 workers reporting work-related pulmonary symptoms compared to 33 asymptomatic workers (p < 0.05). Study results suggest that antigens of Agromyces ramosus, Alcaligenes faecalis, Thermoactinomyces vulgaris and Penicillium citrinum should be considered as potential occupational allergens, probably stimulating an adverse immunopathological reaction in the exposed potato processing workers.

The effects of exposure to organic dust on the respiratory system of potato processing workers.

A cross-sectional study was carried out to evaluate lung function and the prevalence of work-related symptoms in workers of a potato processing plant located in Lublin region (eastern Poland). The study group comprised 61 workers employed in 2 departments. The examination included: physician-administrated questionnaire on occurrence of work-related symptoms, occupational history and smoking habits. Spirometry was performed before (7:00-8:00) and after (16:00-17:00) the morning shift. Altogether 41/61 (67.2%) subjects reported at least one symptom associated with their job. Pulmonary symptoms were recorded in 28/61 (45.9%) subjects. The most commonly recorded complaints were: cough (44.3%), hoarseness (19.7%), shortness of breath (18%), followed by headache and skin lesion (13.1% each), and eye and nose irritation (11.5%). The prevalence of work-related symptoms (except for eye and nose irritation) was higher in the group of subjects working longer than 4 years (the difference was statistically significant only for skin lesion). Among non-smoking workers a significantly higher prevalence of headache was seen compared to smokers (Fisher's test, p < 0.05). Smokers complained more frequently of respiratory symptoms such as cough, shortness of breath, hoarseness and chest pain. The difference was significant only for cough (p < 0.05). A statistically significant over-shift decline in all measured spirometric values: FVC, FEV(1) (p < 0.001), FEV(1)/VC (p < 0.05), PEF (p < 0.01) was observed.

Exposure to airborne microorganisms in furniture factories.

Microbiological air sampling was performed in 2 furniture factories located in eastern Poland. In one factory furniture were made from fibreboards and chipboards while in the other from beech wood. It was found that the concentration of total microorganisms (bacteria + fungi) in the air of the facility using beech wood for furniture production (mean 10.7 x (3) cfu/m(3), range 3.3 27.5 x (3) cfu/m(3)) was significantly higher (p < 0.01) compared to microbial concentration in the facility using fibre- and chipboards (mean 3.6 x (3) cfu/m(3), range 1.9-6.2 x (3) cfu/m(3)). On average, the commonest microorganisms in the air of the furniture factories were corynebacteria (Corynebacterium spp., Arthrobacter spp., Brevibacterium spp.) which formed 18.1-50.0% of the total airborne microflora, and fungi (mostly Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Absidia spp. and yeasts) which formed 6.2-54.4% of the total count. The values of the respirable fraction of airborne microflora in the furniture factories varied within fairly wide limits and were between 15.0-62.4%. Altogether, 28 species or genera of bacteria and 12 species or genera of fungi were identified in the air of examined factories, of which respectively 8 and 7 species or genera were reported as having allergenic and/or immunotoxic properties. In conclusion, the workers of furniture factories are exposed to relatively low concentrations of airborne microorganisms which do not exceed the suggested occupational exposure limits. Nevertheless, the presence of allergenic and/or immunotoxic microbial species in the air of factories poses a potential risk of respiratory disease, in particular in sensitive workers.

Response of furniture factory workers to work-related airborne allergens.

The aim of this work was to determine the reactivity of furniture factory workers to microbial allergens associated with wood dust. Allergological examinations by skin and precipitin tests were performed in 48 workers employed in a factory producing furniture from fibreboards and chipboards, and in 32 healthy urban dwellers not exposed to organic dusts (referents). The skin test was performed by the intradermal method with the saline extracts of the cultures of 3 microbial species (Rahnella sp., Arthrobacter globiformis, Aspergillus fumigatus) associated with wood dust. Skin reactions were recorded after 20 minutes, 8 hours and 24 hours and graded 1-4, depending on the diameter of the reaction. The agar-gel test for the presence of precipitins in serum was performed with the extracts of 15 microbial isolates. The furniture factory workers showed a high skin response to the extracts of environmental microbes. The frequency of early grade 2 reactions (diameter 10 mm) to the extract of Rahnella sp. was 64.6% among furniture workers, being significantly higher (p < 0.001) compared to reference group (18.7%). High frequencies of grade 2 reactions in furniture workers were also found with the extracts of A. globiformis and A. fumigatus (52.1% and 62.5%, respectively). The frequencies of grade 2 delayed (after 8 h) and late (after 24 h) reactions to Rahnella sp. in furniture workers were non-specifically high (97.9%/93.7%) while the response rates to A. globiformis and A. fumigatus were much lower (10.4%/25.0%, and 4.2%/37.5%, respectively). In agar-gel test for detection of precipitins, in most cases very low percentages of positive reactions (0-2.1%) were noted in furniture factory workers. The only exception was a high percentage of positive reactions (27.1%) to the antigen of Pseudomonas maltophilia, which was significantly greater in furniture workers compared to the reference group (p < 0.01). The obtained results suggest that early allergic reactions to microorganisms associated with wood dust are common among workers of furniture industry, which may increase a potential risk of work-related disease in this occupational group.

Work-related symptoms among furniture factory workers in Lublin region (eastern Poland).

48 woodworkers employed in the furniture factory were examined. The control group consisted of 41 office workers with no exposure to organic dust. The examination included: interview on work-related symptoms, physical examination, and lung function test performed before and after the working-day. 38 out of 48 (79.2%) woodworkers reported work-related symptoms. The most common complaint was dry cough reported by 25 workers (52.1%), followed by general malaise -- reported by 17 (35.45%), conjunctivitis -- by 16 (33.3%), rhinitis - by 16 (33.3%), and skin symptoms by 16 (33.3%). Other symptoms such as headache, shortness of breath and chest pain occurred less frequently. Subjects working in initial processing and board processing departments had a higher prevalence of cough compared to workers employed in the varnishing department (p < 0.01). The prevalence of skin symptoms was significantly higher in board processing and varnishing departments compared to initial processing department (p < 0.05). Occupational asthma and allergic alveolitis were recorded in 3 out of 48 (6.2%) and 2 out of 48 (4.2%) workers, respectively. Baseline FVC and FEV(1) values were lower in woodworkers compared to controls (p < 0.01). The increased lung function parameters (FVC, FEV(1)) were observed in woodworkers who smoked compared to non-smokers. The difference was not statistically significant. There was a significant over-shift decrease of all measured spirometric values: FVC, FEV(1)), FEV(1)) /VC, PEF among woodworkers (p < 0.001). There was a significant pre-shift, post-shift decline in FVC, FEV(1)), FVC/FEV(1)), and PEF among workers under 30 years of age (p < 0.001). The same tendency was seen for FVC and FEV(1)) in subjects over 30. The percentage changes in FVC and FEV(1)) were greater in the group of younger workers (15.1% and 17.6%) respectively, than in the group of older subject (6.2%, 7.1%). The difference was not statistically significant.

Size distribution of bacterial and fungal bioaerosols in indoor air.

The aim of this study was to determine the size distribution of bacteria and fungi occurring in the air of human dwellings. The concentration and size distribution of particulate aerosol, Gram-positive mesophilic bacteria, Gram-negative mesophilic bacteria and fungi were examined in 60 flats situated in the Upper Silesia conurbation, southern Poland. The investigated flats comprised three quantitatively equal (20 flats each) groups: flats without additional emission sources of particulate aerosol and microorganisms (Group I), flats with persons who smoke at least one packet of cigarettes per day (Group II), and flats located near steelworks (Group III). The concentrations of four fractions of particulate aerosol were measured by Harvard impactors (PM 2.5 and PM 10) as well as by cyclone HD and 37 mm filter disc holder (PM 5 and TSP). The concentrations of bacteria and fungi were measured by a particle-sizing six-stage Graseby-Andersen impactor. It was found that the concentrations of particulate aerosol in examined flats were below 0.6 mg/m.(3) and the concentrations of microorganisms were below the level of 10(4) cfu/m.(3). The dominant bacteria present in the air of examined dwellings (Micrococcus/Kocuria spp., Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus spp., Pseudomonadaceae, Aeromonas spp., Nocardia spp.) occurred mostly as single particles in the dwellings without additional emission sources, while in the air of dwellings inhabited by tobacco smokers, they often formed aggregates composed of bacterial and dust particles. The fungi dominant in the air of examined dwellings (Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., yeasts) occurred mostly as single particles.