Impaired T lymphocyte function increases tumorigenicity and decreases tumor latency in a mouse model of head and neck cancer.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (HNSCC) is the sixth most frequent cancer worldwide. SCC is the most common malignant tumor of the oral cavity with over 35,000 cases and 8,000 deaths reported in the United States each year. Previous case studies have reported increased incidence of HNSCC in patients on immunosuppressive therapy for organ transplantation. The results of these studies indicate that effective immune surveillance is important for preventing emergence of HNSCC. HNSCC may also inhibit immune response to tumor cells, which may be responsible for progression. We previously reported induction of metastatic HNSCC in p53 null mutant mice. Despite induction with the potent carcinogen dimethylbenzanthracene, each mouse developed only 1-2 primary tumors with a relatively long induction period of 22 weeks. We hypothesized that immune surveillance might eliminate early tumor cells resulting in the relatively small number of primary tumors and long induction time. To test this hypothesis we performed the induction protocol in nude mice which have defective T lymphocyte function. Decreased T lymphocyte function resulted in reduced tumor latency and increased tumor formation. Immunohistochemical studies showed that expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins is similar in mouse and human HNSCC. However, distinct differences exist between primary and metastatic tumors from nude and wild-type mice. We also determined that lymphocytes react to metastatic tumor cells by upregulating immunoglobin gene expression but are prone to apoptosis via decreased expression of survival factors and upregulation of cell death genes.

Extracellular signals regulate rapid coactivator recruitment at AP-1 sites by altered phosphorylation of both CREB binding protein and c-jun.

Retinoic acid (RA) inhibits matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) expression due to AP-1 inhibition resulting from retinoic acid receptors (RARs) competing for limiting amounts of coactivator proteins. However, given the rapid kinetics of MMP-9 transcription, it seems unlikely that these interactions can be explained passively. Our previous studies indicated that coactivator and transcription factor phosphorylation may allow for rapid regulation of MMP-9 expression. In the present study we tested this hypothesis directly. CREB binding protein (CBP) and p300/CBP-associated factor (PCAF) were displaced from transcription factor binding sites on the MMP-9 promoter within minutes of RA treatment. The RAR interaction domains of CBP and PCAF were not required for this displacement. RA and epidermal growth factor had opposing effects on phosphorylation of CBP by extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 that correlated with altered CBP occupancy of AP-1 sites and differential MMP-9 promoter activation. We identified a novel phosphorylation site in the CBP carboxyl terminus that mediated association with AP-1 sites in the MMP-9 promoter. Inhibition of c-jun phosphorylation displaced PCAF from AP-1 sites and reduced promoter activity. Phosphorylation deficient c-jun was less able to recruit PCAF to AP-1 sites. We also demonstrated novel interactions between coactivators and AP-1 proteins. We propose that extracellular signal-mediated coactivator exchange at AP-1 sites is mediated via protein kinase pathways.

Genomic profiling of decreased DNA damage response in human squamous carcinoma cells.

A significant problem in the use of radiation and chemotherapy drugs is the development of resistance to these agents by recurrent and metastatic tumors. A number of mechanisms have been proposed for chemotherapy and radiation resistance. Previous studies have suggested that resistant cancer cells are more tolerant of DNA damage than sensitive cells. Overexpression of the multiple drug resistance gene P-glycoprotein, which acts as a drug efflux pump, has been implicated in drug resistance. The glutathione-S-X gene has also been shown to be involved in drug resistance. The increased expression of a number of proto-oncogenes, including AP-1, c-myc and ras, has been associated with chemotherapy resistance. Given the number of reported radi-ation and chemotherapy resistance genes in cancer, we took a global gene expression approach to examine differences between sensitive and resistant cells and their response to different types of DNA damage. We demonstrated increased numbers of responsive genes in sensitive normal epidermal keratinocytes compared to resistant squamous cell carcinoma cells, regardless of the type of DNA damage. Our results also show new genes that may be responsible for chemotherapy resistance in cancer cells, and differences in how sensitive and resistant cells respond to specific types of DNA damage.

Loss of p53 expression correlates with metastatic phenotype and transcriptional profile in a new mouse model of head and neck cancer.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (HNSCC) is the sixth most frequent cancer worldwide. Because HNSCC is largely acquired by environmental carcinogen exposure rather than through germ line mutations, there are no known familial forms of the disease in humans nor are there inbred rodent strains prone to spontaneous head and neck tumors. Transgenic animals with inactivation of tumor suppressor genes commonly mutated in human cases of HNSCC provide attractive models for studying the pathogenesis of head and neck cancer. p53 is the most frequently inactivated tumor suppressor gene in HNSCC. We used a chemical induction protocol in mice heterozygous for the p53 gene to evaluate how p53 inactivation contributed to head and neck carcinogenesis the mouse model. Metastatic squamous cell carcinomas developed in 100% of animals. Histopathologically, the tumors ranged from well to poorly differentiated and showed many molecular features of human HNSCC. Mice carrying only one p53 allele developed tumors with significantly reduced latency compared with wild-type controls (average, 18 versus 22 weeks). Metastatic cancer cells showed complete loss of p53 expression when compared with primary tumors. Transcriptional profiling showed not only distinct genetic differences between primary and metastatic tumors, but also when cancers from heterozygous null and wild-type animals were compared. Our results provide novel insights into the molecular genetics of tumor progression in head and neck cancer.

Coactivator-mediated estrogen response in human squamous cell carcinoma lines.

Steroid hormones such as 17beta-estradiol (E2) are critical to diverse cellular processes including tumorigenesis. A number of cofactors such as nuclear receptor corepressor (NCoR), CREB-binding protein (CBP), and steroid receptor coactivator 1 (SRC-1) interact with estrogen receptors (ERs) to regulate transcriptional repression or activation of target genes. Estrogen signaling in non-reproductive tract tissues such as skin is less well characterized and the effectiveness of anti-estrogen therapy for cancer arising from these tissues is unknown. We show that tamoxifen (TAM) treatment inhibited cell cycle progression and proliferation of human cancer lines derived from stratified squamous epithelium squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). E2 had no effect on proliferation of these lines despite low levels of ERalpha expression. The E2 treatment promoted displacement of the NCoR from ERalpha and recruitment of CBP to the receptor. SRC-1 expression was not detected in these SCC lines; however, transient transfection of SRC-1, CBP, or both coactivators enhanced transactivation of an estrogen responsive promoter in cancer cells treated with E2 or TAM. In stable clones expressing SRC-1, the coactivator was recruited to ERalpha along with CBP in E2 but not in TAM-treated cells. SRC-1 expression restored the E2-mediated proliferative response to human SCC lines. This increased proliferation correlated with increased extracellular signal regulated kinase 1 (ERK1) expression. SRC-1 and CBP were recruited to the proximal ERK1 promoter region in E2 but not in TAM-treated cells. We concluded that SRC-1 was a key molecular determinant of estrogen-mediated proliferation in human SCC lines.

Regulation of ERK1 gene expression by coactivator proteins.

RARs (retinoic acid receptors) mediate the effect of their ligand RA (retinoic acid) on gene expression. We previously showed that RA inhibited cellular proliferation in part by decreasing expression of the mitogen activated protein kinase ERK1 (extracellular signal regulated kinase 1). However, the mechanism by which RA regulates ERK1 expression is largely uncharacterized. The present study characterizes coactivator-mediated regulation of RA target gene expression by analysing ERK1 promoter activation. CBP (CREB-binding protein) and PCAF (p300/CBP associated factor) are transcriptional coactivators that interact with nuclear hormone receptors such as RARs. CBP and PCAF differentially regulated ERK1 expression in stable clones. CBP clones expressed higher ERK1 protein levels, proliferated faster in culture and were resistant to RA-mediated growth inhibition. PCAF clones expressed lower levels of ERK1 protein and cells grew more slowly than controls. CBP and PCAF regulation of the ERK1 promoter was dependent on two Sp1 (specificity protein 1) sites located between -86 and -115 bp. Immunoprecipitation and yeast two-hybrid analysis revealed that PCAF interacted with Sp1 via CBP. A putative p53 binding site at -360 bp functioned as a major repressor of ERK1 promoter activity even in the absence of exogenous p53 expression. CBP and PCAF occupancy of the proximal ERK1 promoter was dramatically decreased by RA treatment. PCAF mediated inhibition of ERK1 expression was due to decreased stability of the kinase mRNA. We conclude that CBP and PCAF coactivators mediate ERK1 gene expression at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptional level.