RNA analysis of inner ear cells from formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) archival human temporal bone section using laser microdissection--a technical report.

OBJECTIVE: Molecular analysis using archival human inner ear specimens is challenging because of the anatomical complexity, long-term fixation, and decalcification. However, this method may provide great benefit for elucidation of otological diseases. Here, we extracted mRNA for RT-PCR from tissues dissected from archival FFPE human inner ears by laser microdissection. METHODS: Three human temporal bones obtained at autopsy were fixed in formalin, decalcified by EDTA, and embedded in paraffin. The samples were isolated into spiral ligaments, outer hair cells, spiral ganglion cells, and stria vascularis by laser microdissection. RNA was extracted and heat-treated in 10 mM citrate buffer to remove the formalin-derived modification. To identify the sites where COCH and SLC26A5 mRNA were expressed, semi-nested RT-PCR was performed. We also examined how long COCH mRNA could be amplified by semi-nested RT-PCR in archival temporal bone. RESULTS: COCH was expressed in the spiral ligament and stria vascularis. However, SLC26A5 was expressed only in outer hair cells. The maximum base length of COCH mRNA amplified by RT-PCR was 98 bp in 1 case and 123 bp in 2 cases. CONCLUSION: We detected COCH and SLC26A5 mRNA in specific structures and cells of the inner ear from archival human temporal bone. Our innovative method using laser microdissection and semi-nested RT-PCR should advance future RNA study of human inner ear diseases.

3,4-Diaminopyridine improves neuromuscular transmission in a MuSK antibody-induced mouse model of myasthenia gravis.

This study investigated the effect of 3,4-diaminopyridine (3,4-DAP), a potent potentiator of transmitter release, on neuromuscular transmission in vivo in a mouse model of myasthenia gravis (MG) caused by antibodies against muscle-specific kinase (MuSK; MuSK-MG) and ex vivo in diaphragm muscle from these mice. 3,4-DAP significantly improved neuromuscular transmission, predominantly by increasing acetylcholine (ACh) release, supporting presynaptic potentiation as an effective treatment strategy for MuSK-MG patients who have defective transmitter release. In MuSK-MG, we suggest that only low-dose acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors be used to avoid side effects, and we propose that 3,4-DAP may be effective as a symptomatic therapy.

Divalent and monovalent autoantibodies cause dysfunction of MuSK by distinct mechanisms in a rabbit model of myasthenia gravis.

Muscle-specific kinase (MuSK), a receptor tyrosine kinase, is required for the formation and maintenance of neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). Although autoantibodies against MuSK have been demonstrated to cause myasthenia gravis (MG), the underlying pathogenic mechanism remains unclear because a major subclass of these antibodies is functionally monovalent. We investigated the pathogenic role of MuSK antibodies in the onset of MG in vivo and in vitro. Ultrastructural visualization of NMJs in paretic rabbits with MuSK antibodies indicated that postsynaptic membranes were preserved, despite a significant loss of complexity in the convoluted synaptic folds. In addition, an in vitro assay indicated that both divalent and monovalent antibodies from paretic rabbits could interfere with agrin-induced acetylcholine receptor (AChR) clustering in cultured myotubes. Furthermore, in the absence of agrin, divalent antibodies induced MuSK phosphorylation and accelerated downregulation of Dok-7, an essential intracellular MuSK binding protein, while monovalent antibodies inhibited agrin-induced phosphorylation of MuSK, thus demonstrating distinct molecular mechanisms underlying the MuSK dysfunction induced by these two types of antibodies. Taken together, these findings suggest that complement activation is not necessary for the MG onset and that both divalent and monovalent antibodies may cause MG in vivo by inducing MuSK dysfunction.

Antibodies against muscle-specific kinase impair both presynaptic and postsynaptic functions in a murine model of myasthenia gravis.

Antibodies against acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) cause pathogenicity in myasthenia gravis (MG) patients through complement pathway-mediated destruction of postsynaptic membranes at neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). However, antibodies against muscle-specific kinase (MuSK), which constitute a major subclass of antibodies found in MG patients, do not activate the complement pathway. To investigate the pathophysiology of MuSK-MG and establish an experimental autoimmune MG (EAMG) model, we injected MuSK protein into mice deficient in complement component five (C5). MuSK-injected mice simultaneously developed severe muscle weakness, accompanied by an electromyographic pattern such as is typically observed in MG patients. In addition, we observed morphological and functional defects in the NMJs of EAMG mice, demonstrating that complement activation is not necessary for the onset of MuSK-MG. Furthermore, MuSK-injected mice exhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor-evoked cholinergic hypersensitivity, as is observed in MuSK-MG patients, and a decrease in both AChE and the AChE-anchoring protein collagen Q at postsynaptic membranes. These findings suggest that MuSK is indispensable for the maintenance of NMJ structure and function, and that disruption of MuSK activity by autoantibodies causes MG. This mouse model of EAMG could be used to develop appropriate medications for the treatment of MuSK-MG in humans.

Muscle weakness and neuromuscular junctions in aging and disease.

A critical issue in today's super-aging society is the need to reduce the burden of family care while continuing to make our medical institutions supportive. A rapidly emerging, major health concern is the debilitating effect of muscle weakness and atrophy from aging, termed sarcopenia; however, the molecular basis of this condition is not well understood. Our research aim is to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of age-related muscle atrophy and to devise new measures for preventing and treating this disability. A promising treatment for muscle atrophy is the promotion of muscle regeneration by recruiting stem cells into the targeted region. The first requirement is to understand how the motor system, which consists of muscles and motoneurons, is maintained to accomplish that goal. Recent studies in the field of neuroscience have focused on neuromuscular junctions (NMJ), which play important roles in the maintenance of both motor nerves and muscle fibers. Signaling between muscles and motoneurons at NMJ supports interactions within the motor system. To understand the mechanisms involved, we focus our research on the pathogenic processes underlying neuromuscular diseases. The well-known autoimmune disease, myasthenia gravis (MG), serves as a model not only for tracking the pathogenesis and treatment outcomes of all autoimmune diseases, but also for understanding synaptic functions in maintaining the motor system. Here, we describe recent insights into the molecular mechanisms required for the maintenance of NMJ and the related causes of muscle atrophy.

Myasthenia gravis experimentally induced with muscle-specific kinase.

Here we present the first evidence that muscle-specific kinase (MuSK) antigen can cause myasthenia in animals. MuSK is expressed at the postsynaptic membranes of neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) and forms complexes with acetylcholine receptors (AChR) and rapsyn. MuSK is activated by agrin, which is released from motoneurons, and induces AChR clustering and subsequent formation of NMJ in embryos. Notably, autoantibodies against MuSK were found in a proportion of patients with generalized myasthenia gravis (MG) but without the characteristic AChR autoantibodies. However, MuSK autoantibodies had no known pathogenic potential, and animals immunized with purified MuSK proteins did not develop MG in former studies. In contrast, we have now injected rabbits with MuSK ectodomain protein in vivo and evoked a MG-like muscle weakness with a reduction of AChR clustering at the NMJ. Our results showed that MuSK is required for maintenance of synapses and that interference with that function by MuSK antibodies causes myasthenic weakness. In vitro, AChR clustering in myotubes is induced by agrin and agrin-independent inducers, which do not activate MuSK. Neither the receptor nor the activation mechanisms of AChR clustering induced by agrin-independent inducers has been identified with certainty, but MuSK autoantibodies in myasthenic animals inhibited both agrin and agrin-independent AChR clustering. MuSK plays multiple roles in pre-patterning of the postsynaptic membrane before innervation and formation of NMJ in embryos. Some of these mechanisms may also participate in the maintenance of mature NMJ. This model system would provide new knowledge about the molecular pathogenesis of MG and MuSK functions in mature NMJ.

Quantitative analysis of mRNA in human temporal bones.

CONCLUSION: Well-preserved mRNA could be extracted from frozen human inner ears. Therefore, this study demonstrates that analysis of mRNA could be performed to study the molecular mechanisms of inner ear disorders using human specimens. OBJECTIVES: Analysis of RNA as well DNA is requisite to study the molecular mechanisms of inner ear disorders. Methods of isolating RNA from experimental animals have been established, while isolation of RNA from human inner ears is much more challenging. In the present study, we demonstrate a method by which messenger RNA (mRNA) was extracted from human inner ears and quantitatively analyzed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: COCH mRNA as well as GAPDH mRNA was extracted from membranous labyrinths dissected from three formalin-fixed and three frozen human temporal bones, removed at autopsy. The length of COCH mRNA and quantity of GAPDH mRNA was compared between the two groups by quantitative RT-PCR. RESULTS: COCH mRNA could be amplified as much as 976 bp in all three frozen specimens. By contrast, it was amplified to 249 bp in two of the three formalin-fixed specimens, with no amplification observed in the remaining. The quantity of amplifiable GAPDH mRNA in the formalin specimens was only 1% of that of the frozen specimens.

Senescence marker protein 30 functions as gluconolactonase in L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis, and its knockout mice are prone to scurvy.

We originally identified senescence marker protein 30 (SMP30) as a distinctive protein whose expression decreases in an androgen-independent manner with aging. Here, we report its sequence homology found in two kinds of bacterial gluconolactonases (GNLs) by using the blast search. Then, through a biochemical study, we identify SMP30 as the lactone-hydrolyzing enzyme GNL of animal species. SMP30 purified from the rat liver had lactonase activity toward various aldonolactones, such as d- and l-glucono-delta-lactone, d- and l-gulono-gamma-lactone, and d- and l-galactono-gamma-lactone, with a requirement for Zn(2+) or Mn(2+) as a cofactor. Furthermore, in SMP30 knockout mice, no GNL activity was detectable in the liver. Thus, we conclude that SMP30 is a unique GNL in the liver. The lactonase reaction with l-gulono-gamma-lactone is the penultimate step in l-ascorbic acid (AA) biosynthesis, and the essential role of SMP30 in this synthetic process was verified here by a nutritional study using SMP30 knockout mice. These knockout mice (n = 6), fed a vitamin C-deficient diet, did not thrive; i.e., they displayed symptoms of scurvy such as bone fracture and rachitic rosary and then died by 135 days after the start of receiving the deficient diet. The AA levels in their livers and kidneys at the time of death were <1.6% of those in WT control mice. In addition, by using the SMP30 knockout mouse, we demonstrate that the alternative pathway of AA synthesis involving d-glucurono-gamma-lactone operates in vivo, although its flux is fairly small.

Induction of myasthenia by immunization against muscle-specific kinase.

Muscle-specific kinase (MuSK) is critical for the synaptic clustering of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and plays multiple roles in the organization and maintenance of neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). MuSK is activated by agrin, which is released from motoneurons, and induces AChR clustering at the postsynaptic membrane. Although autoantibodies against the ectodomain of MuSK have been found in a proportion of patients with generalized myasthenia gravis (MG), it is unclear whether MuSK autoantibodies are the causative agent of generalized MG. In the present study, rabbits immunized with MuSK ectodomain protein manifested MG-like muscle weakness with a reduction of AChR clustering at the NMJs. The autoantibodies activated MuSK and blocked AChR clustering induced by agrin or by mediators that do not activate MuSK. Thus MuSK autoantibodies rigorously inhibit AChR clustering mediated by multiple pathways, an outcome that broadens our general comprehension of the pathogenesis of MG.

Senescence marker protein-30 (SMP30) induces formation of microvilli and bile canaliculi in Hep G2 cells.

Senescence marker protein-30 (SMP30) is an androgen-independent factor that decreases with aging. To elucidate the physiological functions of SMP30, we transfected human SMP30 cDNA into the human hepatoma cell line, Hep G2. These Hep G2/SMP30 transfectants, which stably expressed large amounts of SMP30, proliferated at a slower rate and synthesized less DNA than mock transfectants (Hep G2/pcDNA3 controls). Thus, enhanced expression of SMP30 retarded the growth of Hep G2/SMP30 cells. Ultrastructural studies by scanning electron microscopy revealed numerous microvilli covering the surfaces of Hep G2/SMP30 cells, whereas few microvilli appeared on control cells. Subsequently, transmission electron microscopy revealed that groups of Hep G2/SMP30 cells exhibited bile canaliculi and possessed specialized adhesion contacts, such as tight junctions and desmosomes, at interplasmic membranes. However, in controls, units of only two cells were seen, and these lacked specialized adhesion junctions. Moesin and ZO-1 are known to be concentrated in microvilli and at tight junctions, respectively. Double-immunostaining was performed to examine whether moesin and ZO-1 were expressed in bile canaliculi with microvilli at the apical regions of Hep G2/SMP30 cells. The intensity of moesin and ZO-1 staining in the contact regions of each cell was markedly higher in Hep G2/SMP30 than in control cells. Moreover, moesin stained more interior areas, which corresponded to the microvilli of bile canaliculi. Clearly, bile canaliculi with microvilli formed at the apical ends of Hep G2/SMP30 cells. These results indicate that SMP30 has an important physiological function as a participant in cell-to-cell interactions and imply that the down-regulation of SMP30 during the aging process contributes to the deterioration of cellular interactivity.

Senescence marker protein-30 knockout mouse as an aging model.

A mouse strain lacking SMP30 can be regarded as a strain showing ultimate decrease of the SMP30 molecule. After three months of age, SMP30-KO mice had an increased mortality rate, compared with the SMP30-WT mice, all of which remained alive. Electron microscopic observation of the hepatocytes from 12-month-old SMP30-KO mice revealed many empty vacuoles, presumably lipid droplets, abnormally enlarged mitochondria with indistinct cristae, and exceptionally large lysosomes filled with electron-dense bodies. The total hepatic triglyceride concentration of SMP30-KO mice was approximately 3.6-fold higher than that of the age-matched wild type. Similarly, the total hepatic cholesterol of SMP30-KO mice reached an approximate 3.3-fold greater value than that of the comparative group. Total hepatic phospholipids of SMP30-KO mice achieved an approximately 3.7-fold higher level compared with that of the wild-type mice. The cells from SMP30-KO mice were sensitive to apoptotic reagents. Those results supported the idea that SMP30 has an antiapoptotic function with wide spectrum. These findings indicate that SMP30-KO mice are highly susceptible to various harmful reagents. This strain might be a useful tool for aging and biological monitoring.

Senescence marker protein-30 is a unique enzyme that hydrolyzes diisopropyl phosphorofluoridate in the liver.

Senescence marker protein-30 (SMP30) was originally identified as a novel protein in the rat liver, the expression of which decreases androgen-independently with aging. We have now characterized a unique property of SMP30, the hydrolysis of diisopropyl phosphorofluoridate (DFP), which is similar to the chemical warfare nerve agents sarine, soman and tabun. Hydrolysis of DFP was stimulated equally well by 1 mM MgCl2, MnCl2 or CoCl2, to a lesser extent by 1 mM CdCl2 but not at all by 1 mM CaCl2. No 45Ca2+-binding activity was detected for purified SMP30, suggesting that SMP30 is not a calcium-binding protein, as others previously stated. Despite the sequence similarity between SMP30 and a serum paraoxonase (PON), the inability of SMP30 to hydrolyze PON-specific substrates such as paraoxon, dihydrocoumarin, gamma-nonalactone, and delta-dodecanolactone indicate that SMP30 is distinct from the PON family. We previously established SMP30 knockout mice and have now tested DFPase activity in their livers. The livers from wild-type mice contained readily detectable DFPase activity, whereas no such enzyme activity was found in livers from SMP30 knockout mice. Moreover, the hepatocytes of SMP30 knockout mice were far more susceptible to DFP-induced cytotoxicity than those from the wild-type. These results indicate that SMP30 is a unique DFP hydrolyzing enzyme in the liver and has an important detoxification effect on DFP. Consequently, a reduction of SMP30 expression might account for the age-associated deterioration of cellular functions and enhanced susceptibility to harmful stimuli in aged tissue.

Senescence marker protein-30 knockout mouse as a novel murine model of senile lung.

Senescence marker protein-30 (SMP30) was originally identified as a novel protein of which expression decreases in an androgen-independent manner with aging in the rat liver and functions to protect cells from apoptosis. By reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis, SMP30 mRNA transcripts were found in the mouse lung, liver, kidney, testis and cerebrum. We examined SMP30 expression in the mouse liver, kidney and lung during aging and a distinct temporal profile of SMP30 expression was found in each tissue; the SMP30 mRNA level peaked at 1-3 months of age and decreased thereafter in the liver (the highest at 1 month of age followed by a rapid decline and consistently low thereafter in the kidney), and peaked at 12 months of age in the lung. To investigate the physiological role of SMP30 in the lung, immunohistochemical studies of wild-type (SMP30Y/+) mice and histopathological examinations of SMP30 knockout (SMP30Y/-) mice were performed. Immunoreactivity against anti-SMP30 antibody was mainly detected in bronchial epithelial cells and strongly detected at 6-12 months of age. Morphometric analysis was performed to measure the mean linear intercept and destructive index, and found peripheral airspace enlargement without alveolar destruction in SMP30Y/- mice at 1, 3 and 6 months of age compared with the SMP30Y/+ mice. Our results strongly suggest that SMP30Y/- mice could be a novel model for a senile lung and further examinations of SMP30Y/- mice may offer clues to elucidate the mechanisms of the development of pulmonary diseases in the elderly.

SMP30 deficiency in mice causes an accumulation of neutral lipids and phospholipids in the liver and shortens the life span.

Senescence marker protein-30 (SMP30) is an androgen-independent factor that decreases with aging. SMP30-deficient (SMP30Y/-) mice are viable and fertile but lower in body weight and shorter in life span than the wild-type. In the electron microscope, hepatocytes from SMP30Y/- but not the wild-type mice at 12 months of age clearly contained many lipid droplets, abnormally enlarged mitochondria with indistinct cristae, and enlarged lysosomes filled with electron-dense bodies. In liver specimens from SMP30Y/- mice, the marked number of lipid droplets visible around the central vein increased notably in size and amount as the animals aged. Biochemical analysis of neutral lipids, total hepatic triglyceride, and cholesterol from SMP30Y/- mice showed approximately 3.6- and 3.3-fold higher levels, respectively, than those from age-matched wild-type mice. Moreover, values for total hepatic phospholipids from SMP30Y/- mice were approximately 3.7-fold higher than those for their wild-type counterparts. By thin-layer chromatography analysis, phosphatidylethanolamine, cardiolipin, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, and sphingomyelin accumulations were detected separately in lipid extracts from SMP30Y/- mouse livers and provided results that strongly indicate the profound effect of an SMP30 deficiency on the metabolism of these neutral lipids and phospholipids. Conceivably, this abnormality of lipid metabolism is sufficient to curtail the life span of SMP30-deficient mice.