Helicopter versus ground ambulance transport for interfacility transfer of critically ill children.

BACKGROUND: Following initial stabilization, critically ill children often require transfer to a specialized pediatric hospital. While the use of specialized pediatric transport teams has been associated with improved outcomes for these patients, the additional influence of transfer mode (helicopter or ground ambulance) on clinical outcomes remains unknown. METHODS: We investigated the association between transport mode and outcomes among critically ill children transferred to a single pediatric hospital via a specialized pediatric transport team. We designed a retrospective cohort study to reduce indication bias by limiting analysis to patients for whom a helicopter transport was initially requested. We compared outcomes for those who ultimately traveled via helicopter, and for those who ultimately traveled via ground ambulance due to non-clinical factors. RESULTS: We compared transport times, in-hospital mortality, and hospital length of stay by transport mode. Transport time in minutes was shorter for helicopter transports (median = 143, interquartile range [IQR]: 118-184) compared to ground ambulance transports (median = 289, IQR: 213-258; difference in medians = 146, 95% CI: 12 to 168, p < 0.001). In unadjusted analysis, helicopter transport was not associated with a difference in in-hospital mortality (helicopter = 6.0%, ground ambulance = 7.0%; 95% CI for difference: -6.6% to 3.3%; p = 0.64) but was associated with a statistically significant reduction in median hospital days (helicopter = 4, ground ambulance = 5; 95% CI -3 to 0; p = 0.04). In adjusted analyses, there were no statistically significant associations. These results were consistent across sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Among critically ill pediatric patients without traumatic injuries transported by a specialty team, those patients who would have been transferred by helicopter if available but were instead transferred by ground ambulance reached their site of definitive care approximately 2.5 h later. Helicopter transport for these patients was not associated with in-hospital mortality, but was potentially associated with reduced hospital length of stay.

Local Effects of Two Intravenous Formulations of Pulmonary Vasodilators on Airway Epithelium.

BACKGROUND: Intravenous formulations of epoprostenol are frequently delivered via nebulizer to treat pulmonary hypertension in acutely ill patients. Although their efficacy as pulmonary vasodilators has been shown to be comparable to inhaled nitric oxide, the local effects of these formulations within the airways have not been determined. We hypothesized that the alkaline diluents of these compounds would lead to increased airway epithelial cell death and ciliary cessation. METHODS: Human bronchial epithelial cells were exposed to epoprostenol in glycine and arginine diluents or control fluid. Ciliary beat frequency, lactate dehydrogenase, and total RNA levels were measured before and after exposure. Results were compared between exposure and control groups. RESULTS: Ciliary beat frequency ceased immediately after exposure to epoprostenol with both diluents. Lactate dehydrogenase levels increased by 200% after exposure to epoprostenol and glycine diluent (P = .002). Total RNA levels were undetectable after exposure to epoprostenol and arginine, indicating complete cell death and lysis (P = .015). Ciliary beat frequency ceased after 30 s of exposure to epoprostenol and glycine (P = .008). There was no difference between cells exposed to epoprostenol and those exposed only to diluent. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to intravenous formulations of epoprostenol in glycine and arginine caused increased cell death and ciliary cessation in bronchial epithelial cells. These findings suggest that undesired local effects may occur when these compounds are delivered as inhaled aerosols to patients.

Interfacility Transport Shock Index Is Associated With Decreased Survival in Children.

BACKGROUND: Shock index, the ratio of heart rate to systolic blood pressure that changes with age, is associated with mortality in adults after trauma and in children with sepsis. We assessed the utility of shock index to predict sepsis diagnosis and survival in children requiring interfacility transport to a tertiary care center. METHODS: We studied children aged 1 month to 21 years who had at least 2 sets of vital signs recorded during interfacility transport to the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh by our critical care transport team. Subjects were divided into 4 age groups: group 1 (<1 year), group 2 (1-3 years), group 3 (4-11 years), and group 4 (≥12 years). Children were also grouped into sepsis or nonsepsis group based on the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision categories. Primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge. RESULTS: Of 3519 children studied, 493 (14%) had sepsis. Initial shock index decreased with increasing age: group 1, 1.45 ± 0.42 (mean ± SD); group 2, 1.35 ± 0.32; group 3, 1.20 ± 0.34; and group 4, 1.00 ± 0.32 (P < 0.001). Initial shock index was increased in children with sepsis versus those with no sepsis overall and in all age groups (all P < 0.05). Initial shock index showed a trend for association with survival in univariate analysis (P = 0.05) but was not associated with survival in a multivariable logistic regression. Highest quartile of shock index was associated with need for intensive care unit admission posttransport. CONCLUSIONS: Increased shock index in children requiring intrafacility transport was associated with hospital discharge diagnosis of sepsis but not hospital survival.

Inhaled Pulmonary Vasodilators: Are There Indications Within the Pediatric ICU?

Inhaled nitric oxide (INO) is only FDA-cleared for neonates (> 34 weeks gestation) with hypoxic respiratory failure-associated pulmonary hypertension. Off-label use of INO is common in the pediatric population despite a lack of evidence regarding survival benefit, questioning whether the therapy should be considered outside the neonatal period. A lack of definitive evidence combined with increasing health-care costs has led to the use of less costly inhaled prostacyclin as an alternative to INO, presenting unique patient safety concerns. We evaluate the current evidence and patient safety considerations regarding inhaled pulmonary vasodilators in the pediatric population.

Physical and occupational therapy utilization in a pediatric intensive care unit.

PURPOSE: To characterize the use of physical therapy (PT) and occupational therapy (OT) consultation in our pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We studied children aged 1week-18years admitted to a tertiary care PICU for ≥3days. Patient characteristics, details of PT and OT sessions and adverse events were collected. A multivariable logistic regression was performed to determine factors associated with receipt of PT and OT consultation with propensity analysis followed by a regression for factors associated with outcome. RESULTS: Of 138 children studied, 40 (29%) received PT and OT consultation. Services were initiated 6.9±10.0 (mean±standard deviation) days after PICU admission. Range of motion (83%) was the most common therapy provided and 28% of patients were ambulated. Sixty-four of 297 (21.5%) sessions were deferred and 7 (2.4%) sessions were terminated early due to physiologic instability with no serious adverse events. Children who received PT and OT were older, more likely to require neuromuscular blocking agents, and had lower pre-PICU POPC scores (all p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Data are needed to inform on the efficacy of rehabilitative therapies initiated in the ICU to improve outcome for critically ill children.

Development of Risk Indices for Neonatal Respiratory Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation.

Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) has saved thousands of newborns. Population comparisons for research and quality initiatives require risk-matching, but no indices exist for this population. We sought to create a pre-ECMO risk index using the registry data from the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization. We analyzed 5,455 neonatal (<30 days old) respiratory VA-ECMO patients for the period 2000-2010. Multivariate regression examining the impact of pre-ECMO variables on survival to hospital discharge was performed to create the Pittsburgh Index for Pre-ECMO Risk (PIPER), which was ultimately was based on seven pre-ECMO variables. Each PIPER quartile demonstrated increasing mortality by 15% (R = 0.98) and was associated with increased complications on ECMO. Further modeling to include on-ECMO complications (PIPER), including complications and length of time on ECMO, increased the predictive power of the model, with 21% increases in mortality per PIPER quartile (R = 0.97). Our developed indices provide the first steps towards risk-adjusting patients for meaningful comparisons amongst patient populations. There may be additional clinically relevant measures, both pre- and on-ECMO, which could provide better predictive capability. Future work will focus on finding these additional measures and expansion of our techniques to include other patient populations.

First 24-h SNAP-II score and highest PaCO2 predict the need for ECMO in congenital diaphragmatic hernia.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Early clinical predictors for the use of ECMO in patients with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) are lacking. We sought to evaluate the first 24-h SNAP-II score and highest PaCO2 as predictors of ECMO support and in-hospital mortality in neonates with CDH. METHODS: Retrospective review of 47 consecutive neonates with CDH admitted to our institution from January 2007 to December 2010 was performed. Covariates of ECMO use including SNAP-II score and highest PaCO2 within the first 24 h of NICU admission were evaluated. RESULTS: Of the 47 infants in this study, 24 patients were supported with ECMO. The ECMO group had a higher incidence of pulmonary hypertension, higher PaCO2, and higher 24-h SNAP-II scores. Only the SNAP-II score and not highest PaCO2 predicted mortality following multivariate adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: The first 24-h SNAP-II score and highest PaCO2 may provide some prognostic value in identifying neonates who undergo ECMO support; however neither measure was independently associated with the use of therapy. Only the SNAP-II score was associated with in-hospital mortality following multivariate adjustment. Additional study is needed to validate these results in a larger data set.

Diastolic hypotension is an unrecognized risk factor for ß-agonist-associated myocardial injury in children with asthma.

OBJECTIVES: Tachycardia and diastolic hypotension have been associated with ß-2 agonist use. In the setting of ß-agonist-induced chronotropy and inotropy, diastolic hypotension may limit myocardial blood flow. We hypothesized that diastolic hypotension is associated with ß-agonist use and that diastolic hypotension and tachycardia are associated with biochemical evidence of myocardial injury in children with asthma. DESIGN: Two patient cohorts were collected. The first, consisting of patients transported for respiratory distress having received at least 10 mg of albuterol, was studied for development of tachycardia and hypotension. The second, consisting of patients who had troponin measured during treatment for status asthmaticus with continuous albuterol, was studied for factors associated with elevated troponin. Exclusion criteria for both cohorts included age younger than 2 years old, sepsis, pneumothorax, cardiac disease, and antihypertensive use. Albuterol dose, other medications, and vital signs were collected. Diastolic and systolic hypotension were defined as an average value below the fifth percentile for age and tachycardia as average heart rate above the 98th percentile for age. PATIENTS: Ninety of 1,390 children transported for respiratory distress and 64 of 767 children with status asthmaticus met inclusion criteria. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Diastolic hypotension occurred in 56% and 98% of the first and second cohorts, respectively; tachycardia occurred in 94% and 95% of the first and second cohorts, respectively. Diastolic hypotension and tachycardia had a weak linear correlation with albuterol dose (p = 0.02 and p = 0.005, respectively). Thirty-six percent had troponin > 0.1 ng/mL (range, 0-12.6). In multivariate analysis, interaction between diastolic hypotension and tachycardia alone was associated with elevated troponin (p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Diastolic hypotension and tachycardia are dose-dependent side effects of high-dose albuterol. In high-risk patients with status asthmaticus treated with albuterol, diastolic hypotension and tachycardia are associated with biochemical evidence of myocardial injury. Diastolic hypotension, especially combined with tachycardia, could be a reversible risk factor for myocardial injury related to ß-agonist use.

Short- and intermediate-term survival after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in children with cardiac disease.

OBJECTIVES: In children with cardiac disease, common indications for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) include refractory cardiopulmonary resuscitation (E-CPR), failure to separate from cardiopulmonary bypass (OR-ECMO), and low cardiac output syndrome (LCOS-ECMO). Despite established acceptance, ECMO outcomes are suboptimal with a survival between 38% and 55%. We evaluated factors associated with significantly increased survival in cardiac patients requiring ECMO. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective investigation of consecutive patients undergoing ECMO between 2006 and 2010. Demographic, pre-ECMO, ECMO, and post-ECMO parameters were analyzed. Neurologic outcomes were assessed with the pediatric overall performance category scale at the latest follow-up. RESULTS: There were 3524 admissions, 95 (3%) of which necessitated ECMO; 40 (42%) E-CPR, 31 (33%) OR-ECMO, and 24 (25%) LCOS-ECMO. The overall hospital survival was 73%. The within-groups hospital survival was 75% in E-CPR, 77% OR-ECMO and 62% LCOS-ECMO. In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, chromosomal anomalies (odds ratio [OR], 8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2-35), single ventricle (OR ,6; 95% CI, 3-33), multiple ECMO runs (OR, 15; 95% CI, 4-42), higher 24-hour ECMO flows (OR, 8; 95% CI, 4-22), decreased lung compliance (OR, 5; 95% CI, 2-16), and need for plasma exchange (OR, 5; 95% CI, 3-18) were all significant factors associated with mortality. From the univariate analysis, a common parameter associated with mortality within all groups was intracranial hemorrhage. At 1.9 years (0.9, 2.9) of follow-up, 66% were still alive, and 89% of survivors had normal function or only mild neurodevelopmental disability. CONCLUSIONS: ECMO was successfully used in children with cardiac disease with 73% and 66% short- and intermediate-term survival, respectively. The majority of the survivors had normal function or only a minimal neurodevelopmental deficit.

Activated partial thromboplastin time is a better trending tool in pediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether activated partial thromboplastin times are a better heparin management tool than activated clotting times in pediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. DESIGN: A single-center retrospective analysis of perfusion and patient records. SETTING: Academic pediatric tertiary care center. PATIENTS: Pediatric patients (<21 yrs old) requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support initiated at Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Point-of-care activated clotting time and activated partial thromboplastin time values, clinical laboratory activated partial thromboplastin time values, weight-normalized heparin administration (units/kg/hr), and reported outcomes were collected for pediatric patients treated for cardiac and/or respiratory failure with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Spearman's ranked correlations were performed for each coagulation test compared to heparin dosage. The Bland-Altman test was used to determine the validity of the point-of-care activated partial thromboplastin time. Hazard analysis was conducted for outcomes and complications for patients whose heparin management was based on the clinical laboratory activated partial thromboplastin time or the activated clotting time. Only the clinical laboratory activated partial thromboplastin time showed a correlation (ρ = 0.40 vs. ρ = -0.04 for activated clotting time) with the heparin administration (units/kg/hr). Point-of-care activated partial thromboplastin time and activated partial thromboplastin time values correlated well (ρ = 0.76), with <5% of samples showing a difference outside 2 SDs, but differences in their absolute values (Δactivated partial thromboplastin time = 100 secs) preclude them from being interchangeable measures. Furthermore, despite no effective change in the mean activated clotting time, cardiac patients showed a significantly improved correlation to heparin dose for all coagulation tests (e.g., point-of-care activated partial thromboplastin time ρ = 0.60). Management of patients with the clinical laboratory activated partial thromboplastin time did not significantly affect patient survival rates but did significantly reduce bleeding complications and significantly increased clotting in the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuit. A hazard analysis demonstrated that bleeding complications were associated with an increased risk of mortality, whereas clotting complications in the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuit were not. CONCLUSIONS: The activated clotting time is not an accurate monitoring tool for heparin management in pediatricextracorporeal membrane oxygenation. The point-of-care activated partial thromboplastin time correlates well with the clinical laboratory activated partial thromboplastin time but cannot be substituted for the clinical laboratory activated partial thromboplastin time values. Management of pediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation patients with the clinical laboratory activated partial thromboplastin time reduced bleeding complications which are associated with increases in mortality.

Mortality and functional morbidity after use of PALS/APLS by community physicians.

OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that pediatric shock is a common cause of death and functional morbidity and that pediatric advanced life support (PALS)/advanced pediatric life support (APLS) resuscitation in the community hospital setting improves child health outcomes. METHODS: This study included all children consecutively transported to 5 regional, tertiary care children's hospitals over 4 years, and is a prospective cohort study comparing outcomes in children who did or did not receive PALS/APLS resuscitation in the community hospital. RESULTS: Shock occurred in 37% of the patients transferred to the tertiary centers. Regardless of trauma status, children with shock had an increased mortality rate compared with those without shock (all patients: 11.4% vs 2.6%), trauma patients (28.3% vs 1.2%), and nontrauma patients (10.5% vs 2.8%). Early shock reversal was associated with reduced mortality (5.06% vs 16.37%) and functional morbidity (1.56% vs 4.11%) rates. Early use of PALS/APLS-recommended interventions was associated with reduced mortality (8.69% vs 15.01%) and functional morbidity (1.24% vs 4.23%) rates. After controlling for center, severity of illness, and trauma status, early reversal of shock and use of PALS/APLS-recommended interventions remained associated with reduced morbidity and mortality rates. CONCLUSIONS: Shock is common in children who are transferred for tertiary care. Pediatric shock recognition and resuscitation in the community hospital improves survival and functional outcome regardless of diagnostic category. The development of shock/trauma systems for children with and without trauma seems prudent.

Pediatric specialized transport teams are associated with improved outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: The goal was to test the hypothesis that interfacility transport performed by a pediatric critical care specialized team, compared with nonspecialized teams, would be associated with improved survival rates and fewer unplanned events during the transport process. METHODS: A single-center, prospective, cohort study was performed between January 2001 and September 2002. A total of 1085 infants and children at referral community hospitals with requests for retrieval by the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh transport team were studied; 1021(94%) were transported by a specialty team and 64 (6%) by nonspecialized teams. Unplanned events during the transport process and 28-day mortality rates were assessed. RESULTS: Unplanned events occurred for 55 patients (5%) and were more common among patients transported by nonspecialized teams (61% vs 1.5%). Airway-related events were most common, followed by cardiopulmonary arrest, sustained hypotension, and loss of crucial intravenous access. After adjustment for illness severity, only the use of a nonspecialized team was independently associated with an unplanned event, and death was more common among patients transported by nonspecialized teams (23% vs 9%). CONCLUSION: Transport of critically ill children to a pediatric tertiary care center can be conducted more safely with a pediatric critical care specialized team than with teams lacking specific training and expertise in pediatric critical care and pediatric transport medicine.

The association of renal dysfunction and the use of aprotinin in patients undergoing congenital cardiac surgery requiring cardiopulmonary bypass.

BACKGROUND: The use of large-dose aprotinin during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) in adult patients has been linked to postoperative renal dysfunction, but its effect on the pediatric population undergoing complex congenital cardiac operations is not well defined. METHODS: We used a retrospective cohort analysis to evaluate children undergoing cardiac surgery requiring CPB between July 2004 and July 2006. Demographic data and surgical risk quantified by the Aristotle surgical complexity level were analyzed as covariates. Renal dysfunction was defined according to the RIFLE criteria, an international consensus classification which defines three grades of increasing severity of acute kidney injury: risk (Class R), injury (Class I), and failure (Class F) based on serum creatinine values. A univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis and a propensity score were used to analyze the data. The propensity score was developed using pretreatment covariates associated with the administration of aprotinin. A multivariate logistic regression was then used with the propensity score and intraoperative measures as covariates. A P value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: Among 395 patients who underwent cardiac surgery, 55% received aprotinin and 45% did not. Thirty-one percent of the cohort had previous cardiac surgery; 17% were neonates. According to the RIFLE criteria, 80 of the patients (20.3%) had acute kidney injury in the postoperative period; 53 (13.4%) had risk of renal dysfunction with 23 (5.8%) having injury and four patients (0.7%) having failure. Those receiving aprotinin had a higher incidence of previous cardiac surgery (54.1% vs 5%), sepsis (6.9% vs. 0.0%), heart failure (24.8% vs 12.4%), mechanical ventilation (25.2% vs 2.8%), or mechanical circulatory support (6.0% vs. 0.6%). More patients had an Aristotle level of 4 (26.6% vs 2.8%) and were treated with diuretics (63.8% vs 26.6%), angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (21.1% vs 7.9%), milrinone (25.7% vs 4.5%), and inotropic support (16.1% vs 2.3%). Although there was a significant difference in the unadjusted risk of renal dysfunction, adjustment with the preoperative propensity score revealed that there was no association between aprotinin and renal dysfunction (OR 1.32; 95% CI 0.55-3.19). The duration of CPB was the only independent variable associated with the development of renal dysfunction (OR 1.0; 95% CI 1.009-1.014). CONCLUSIONS: Patients who receive aprotinin are more likely to present with preoperative risk factors for the development of postoperative renal dysfunction. However, when associated risk factors are properly considered, the use of aprotinin does not seem to be associated with a higher risk of developing renal dysfunction in the immediate postoperative period in children.

Extubation after cardiothoracic surgery in neonates, children, and young adults: one year of institutional experience.

OBJECTIVE: Describe risk factors associated with successful and early extubation in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. SETTING: University hospital, cardiac intensive care unit. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Review of 212 consecutive surgical admissions from January 2003 to January 2004, excluding deaths. Preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative variables were studied. Successful extubation was defined as no reintubation at any time during the cardiac intensive care unit course and early extubation was defined as mechanical ventilation < or =24 hrs. Median subject age was 8 months (range, 1 day-25 yrs), with 57% <1 yr of age and 22% neonates. Fifty-eight (27%) were extubated in the operating room and 122 (58%) were extubated at <24 hrs (mean, 6.1 +/- 7.7 hrs). Only seven patients failed extubation: three in the operating room because of upper airway obstruction and four in the cardiac intensive care unit for acute respiratory failure associated with atelectasis (n = 2), ventricular dysfunction (n = 1), and arrhythmia (n = 1). There were no extubation failures in patients extubated >24 hrs after surgery. A history of prematurity (odds ratio [OR], 5.84, 2.29-14.9; p < .001), base excess (OR, 1.47, 1.27-1.70; p < .001), cardiopulmonary bypass time (OR, 1.01, 1.01 to -1.2; p < .05), and the need for surgical reintervention (OR, 18.29, 2.78 to -120.07; p < .05) were associated with intubation for >24 hrs. CONCLUSION: Extubation without the need for reintubation can be achieved in nearly all children following cardiothoracic surgery. The majority of successful extubations can be achieved within 24 hrs of surgery

Extubation after cardiothoracic surgery in neonates, children, and young adults: One year of institutional experience.

OBJECTIVE:: Describe risk factors associated with successful and early extubation in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. DESIGN:: Retrospective chart review. SETTING:: University hospital, cardiac intensive care unit. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS:: Review of 212 consecutive surgical admissions from January 2003 to January 2004, excluding deaths. Preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative variables were studied. Successful extubation was defined as no reintubation at any time during the cardiac intensive care unit course and early extubation was defined as mechanical ventilation 24 hrs after surgery. A history of prematurity (odds ratio [OR], 5.84, 2.29-14.9; p < .001), base excess (OR, 1.47, 1.27-1.70; p < .001), cardiopulmonary bypass time (OR, 1.01, 1.01 to -1.2; p < .05), and the need for surgical reintervention (OR, 18.29, 2.78 to -120.07; p < .05) were associated with intubation for >24 hrs. CONCLUSION:: Extubation without the need for reintubation can be achieved in nearly all children following cardiothoracic surgery. The majority of successful extubations can be achieved within 24 hrs of surgery.