Spindle abnormalities and chromosome misalignment in bovine oocytes after exposure to low doses of bisphenol A or bisphenol S.

STUDY QUESTION: What are the effects of exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) or bisphenol S (BPS) during IVM on bovine oocyte maturation, spindle morphology and chromosome alignment? SUMMARY ANSWER: Exposure to BPA or BPS during IVM resulted in increased spindle abnormalities and chromosome misalignment, even at very low concentrations. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: BPA is an endocrine disrupting chemical that alters oocyte maturation, spindle morphology and chromosome alignment in a range of species. The use of BPA substitutes, such as BPS, is increasing and these substitutes often display different potencies and mechanisms of action compared with BPA. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: Bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) underwent IVM with BPA or BPS for 24 h, together with vehicle-only controls. Overall, 10 different concentrations of BPA or BPS were used ranging from 1 fM to 50 µM in order to detect low dose or non-monotonic effects. An incomplete block design was utilized for the study, with at least three replicates per block. A total of 939 oocytes (250 of which were controls) were used for the BPA experiments, and 432 (110 controls) for the BPS experiments. Following the IVM period, the oocytes were denuded and fixed for immunocytochemistry. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Immunocytochemistry was used to label the chromatin, actin, and microtubules in the fixed oocytes. The meiotic stage was assessed using immunofluorescence, and the metaphase-II (MII) oocytes were further assessed for spindle morphology and chromosome alignment (in all MII oocytes regardless of spindle morphology) using immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. Significant differences between the treatment and control groups were determined using chi-square and Fisher's exact tests. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: There was no effect of BPA or BPS on the proportion of bovine oocytes that reached MII (P > 0.05). BPA and BPS increased spindle abnormalities in MII oocytes at almost all concentrations tested, including those as low as 1 fM (P = 0.013) or 10 fM (P < 0.0001), respectively, compared to control. Oocytes with flattened spindles with broad poles were observed at a higher frequency at some concentrations of BPA (P = 0.0002 and P = 0.002 for 10 nM and 50 µM, respectively) or BPS (P = 0.01 for 100 nM BPS), while this spindle phenotype was absent in the controls. BPA increased chromosome misalignment at concentrations of 10 fM, 10 nM and 50 µM (P < 0.0001 to P = 0.043 depending on the dose). BPS increased chromosome misalignment at concentrations of 10 fM, 100 pM, 10 nM, 100 nM and 50 µM (P < 0.0001 to P = 0.013 depending on the dose). LIMITATIONS REASONS FOR CAUTION: Exposures to BPA or BPS were performed during the IVM of COCs to allow for determination of direct effects of these chemicals on oocyte maturation. Whole follicle culture or in vivo studies will confirm whether follicular cell interactions modify the effects of BPA or BPS on oocyte meiotic maturation. Investigation into the effects of BPA or BPS on other oocyte functions will determine whether these chemicals alter oocyte quality via mechanisms independent of the meiotic endpoints characterized here. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: The findings of this study show that both BPA and BPS induce spindle abnormalities and chromosome misalignment in bovine in a non-monotonic manner, and at concentrations that are orders of magnitude below those measured in humans. Taken in context with previous studies on the effects of BPA in a range of species, our data support the literature that BPA may reduce oocyte quality and lead to subsequent infertility. Additionally, these results contribute to the burgeoning field of research on BPS and suggest that BPS may indeed be a 'regrettable substitution' for BPA. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): This study was supported by funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (Grant 1R15ES024520-01). The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Human Papillomavirus Infection, Infertility, and Assisted Reproductive Outcomes.

The human papillomavirus (HPV) is a sexually transmitted infection common among men and women across all geographic and socioeconomic subgroups worldwide. Recent evidence suggests that HPV infection may affect fertility and alter the efficacy of assisted reproductive technologies. In men, HPV infection can affect sperm parameters, specifically motility. HPV-infected sperm can transmit viral DNA to oocytes, which may be expressed in the developing blastocyst. HPV can increase trophoblastic apoptosis and reduce the endometrial implantation of trophoblastic cells, thus increasing the theoretical risk of miscarriage. Vertical transmission of HPV during pregnancy may be involved in the pathophysiology of preterm rupture of membranes and spontaneous preterm birth. In patients undergoing intrauterine insemination for idiopathic infertility, HPV infection confers a lower pregnancy rate. In contrast, the evidence regarding any detrimental impact of HPV infection on IVF outcomes is inconclusive. It has been suggested that vaccination could potentially counter HPV-related sperm impairment, trophoblastic apoptosis, and spontaneous miscarriages; however, these conclusions are based on in vitro studies rather than large-scale epidemiological studies. Improvement in the understanding of HPV sperm infection mechanisms and HPV transmission into the oocyte and developing blastocyst may help explain idiopathic causes of infertility and miscarriage.