Autophagy induction in atrophic muscle cells requires ULK1 activation by TRIM32 through unanchored K63-linked polyubiquitin chains.

Optimal autophagic activity is crucial to maintain muscle integrity, with either reduced or excessive levels leading to specific myopathies. LGMD2H is a muscle dystrophy caused by mutations in the ubiquitin ligase TRIM32, whose function in muscles remains not fully understood. Here, we show that TRIM32 is required for the induction of muscle autophagy in atrophic conditions using both in vitro and in vivo mouse models. Trim32 inhibition results in a defective autophagy response to muscle atrophy, associated with increased ROS and MuRF1 levels. The proautophagic function of TRIM32 relies on its ability to bind the autophagy proteins AMBRA1 and ULK1 and stimulate ULK1 activity via unanchored K63-linked polyubiquitin. LGMD2H-causative mutations impair TRIM32's ability to bind ULK1 and induce autophagy. Collectively, our study revealed a role for TRIM32 in the regulation of muscle autophagy in response to atrophic stimuli, uncovering a previously unidentified mechanism by which ubiquitin ligases activate autophagy regulators.

Overexpression of PIK3CA in murine head and neck epithelium drives tumor invasion and metastasis through PDK1 and enhanced TGFß signaling.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) patients have a poor prognosis, with invasion and metastasis as major causes of mortality. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway regulates a wide range of cellular processes crucial for tumorigenesis, and PIK3CA amplification and mutation are among the most common genetic alterations in human HNSCC. Compared with the well-documented roles of the PI3K pathway in cell growth and survival, the roles of the PI3K pathway in tumor invasion and metastasis have not been well delineated. We generated a PIK3CA genetically engineered mouse model (PIK3CA-GEMM) in which wild-type PIK3CA is overexpressed in head and neck epithelium. Although PIK3CA overexpression alone was not sufficient to initiate HNSCC formation, it significantly increased tumor susceptibility in an oral carcinogenesis mouse model. PIK3CA overexpression in mouse oral epithelium increased tumor invasiveness and metastasis by increasing epithelial-mesenchymal transition and by enriching a cancer stem cell phenotype in tumor epithelial cells. In addition to these epithelial alterations, we also observed marked inflammation in tumor stroma. AKT is a central signaling mediator of the PI3K pathway. However, molecular analysis suggested that progression of PIK3CA-driven HNSCC is facilitated by 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase (PDK1) and enhanced transforming growth factor ß (TGFß) signaling rather than by AKT. Examination of human HNSCC clinical samples revealed that both PIK3CA and PDK1 protein levels correlated with tumor progression, highlighting the significance of this pathway. In summary, our results offer significant insight into how PIK3CA overexpression drives HNSCC invasion and metastasis, providing a rationale for targeting PI3K/PDK1 and TGFß signaling in advanced HNSCC patients with PIK3CA amplification.

p73 expression modulates p63 and Mdm2 protein presence in complex with p53 family-specific DNA target sequence in squamous cell carcinogenesis.

The expression of p73 and p63 isoforms is frequently deregulated in human epithelial tumors. We previously showed that loss of p73 protein expression associates with malignant conversion in vivo and ionizing radiation (IR) resistance in vitro in a clonal model of mouse epidermal carcinogenesis. Here we show that loss of endogenous p73 expression in squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) cells and tumors was concomitant with preferential DNA binding of the inhibitory DeltaNp63alpha isoform and reduction of transcriptionally active p63gamma isoforms binding to a p21 promoter sequence in vitro. Reconstitution of TAp73alpha in malignant cells increased the steady state DNA-binding capabilities of the endogenous transcriptionally active TAp63gamma and DeltaNp63gamma isoforms, correlating with restoration of tumor suppression but not IR sensitivity. Loss of p73 in malignant cells also coincided with increased presence of p53 family inhibitor Mdm2 in p53-specific DNA-bound complexes, whereas reconstitution of TAp73alpha expression resulted in exclusion of Mdm2 from these complexes. These results suggest a dual mechanism for TAp73alpha to foster tumor suppression through enhancement of the DNA-binding activity of p63gamma isoforms, and through inhibition of transcriptional repressors Mdm2 or DeltaNp63alpha.

Functional quantification of DNA-binding proteins p53 and estrogen receptor in cells and tumor tissues by DNA affinity immunoblotting.

Functional assays of proteins can monitor the consequences of defects attributable to posttranslational activating or inhibitory events as well as to genetic mutations. Such assays promise to permit evaluation of cooperating oncogenic or tumor suppressor pathways in cells and tumors. As a step toward realizing this promise, we designed the DNA affinity immunoblotting (DAI) method to measure the activities of multiple sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins simultaneously [initially p53 and estrogen receptor (ER)] in lysates of cells or frozen tumor tissues. DAI is a novel application of biotin/streptavidin affinity chromatography and immunoblotting. The p53 and ER proteins in cell or tissue lysates were bound to biotinylated, specific DNA probes, retrieved using a streptavidin-conjugated matrix, and then quantified in parallel with total protein by immunoblotting. The assay results were reproducible and specifically correlated with the known functional status of p53 in mouse and human cells of known p53 genotype, including those with low levels of p53 protein. ER immunohistochemistry of human breast samples, which is highly correlated with functional status and prognosis in human breast cancer, was also highly correlated with DNA binding activity results by DAI. In contrast, the p53 protein in cells is frequently expressed but inactive, potentially accounting for the lack of strict correlation of p53 immunohistochemical or mutational status with tumor response to chemotherapy. DAI offers a new means of molecular profiling and monitoring of p53 and other DNA-binding protein activities in cells and tumors. DAI has applications in the detection and identification of covalently modified forms of DNA-binding proteins and in the identification of their interacting proteins in complex with DNA.

Identification of a novel structural variant of the alpha 6 integrin.

The alpha(6) integrin is a 140-kDa (nonreduced) laminin receptor. We have identified a novel 70-kDa (nonreduced) form of the alpha(6) integrin called alpha(6)p for the latin word parvus, meaning small. The variant was immunoprecipitated from human cells using four different alpha(6)-specific monoclonal antibodies but not with alpha(3) or alpha(5) antibodies. The alpha(6)p integrin contained identical amino acid sequences within exons 13--25, corresponding to the extracellular "stalk region" and the cytoplasmic tail of the alpha(6) integrin. The light chains of alpha(6) and alpha(6)p were identical as judged by alpha(6)A-specific antibodies and electrophoretic properties. The alpha(6)p variant paired with either beta(1) or beta(4) subunits and was retained on the cell surface three times longer than alpha(6). Reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed a single polymerase chain reaction product. The alpha(6)p variant was found in human prostate (DU145H, LnCaP, PC3) and colon (SW480) cancer cell lines but not in normal prostate (PrEC), breast cancer (MCF-7), or lung cancer (H69) cell lines or a variant of a prostate carcinoma cell line (PC3-N). Protein levels of alpha(6)p increased 3-fold during calcium-induced terminal differentiation in a normal mouse keratinocyte model system. A novel form of the alpha(6) integrin exists on cell surfaces that contains a dramatically altered extracellular domain.

Binding to the naturally occurring double p53 binding site of the Mdm2 promoter alleviates the requirement for p53 C-terminal activation.

Genotoxic stress activation of the tumor suppressor transcription factor p53 involves post-translational C-terminal modifications that increase both protein stability and DNA binding activity. We compared the requirement for p53 protein activation of p53 target sequences in two major p53-regulated genes, p21/WAF1 (encoding a cell cycle inhibitory protein) and Mdm2 (encoding a ubiquitin ligase that targets p53 for proteolytic degradation). The p53 binding site in the proximal p21/WAF1 promoter contains a single p53 binding consensus sequence, while the p53 binding site in the Mdm2 promoter contains two consensus sequences linked by a 17 bp spacer. Binding of recombinant p53 protein to the p21/WAF1 binding site required monoclonal antibody PAb421, which can mimic activating phosphorylation and/or acetylation events at the C-terminus. In contrast, recombinant p53 bound strongly to the Mdm2 binding site in the absence of PAb421 antibody. Separate binding to each consensus sequence of the Mdm2 binding site still required PAb421, indicating that p53 binding was not simply due to greater affinity to the Mdm2 consensus sequences. Linking two p21/WAF1 binding sites with the 17 bp spacer region from the Mdm2 gene eliminated the PAb421 requirement for p53 binding to the p21/WAF1 site. These results suggest a mechanism for regulation of Mdm2 gene transcription that differs from that other p53-induced genes by its lack of a requirement for C-terminal activation of p53 protein. A steady induction of Mdm2 protein would maintain p53 protein at low levels until post-translational modifications following DNA damage increased p53 activity towards other genes, mediating p53 growth inhibitory and apoptotic activities.

p53 protein at the hub of cellular DNA damage response pathways through sequence-specific and non-sequence-specific DNA binding.

Our environment contains physical, chemical and pathological agents that challenge the integrity of our DNA. In addition to DNA repair, higher multicellular organisms have evolved multiple pathways of response to damage including programmed cell death-apoptosis. The p53 protein appears to sense multiple types of DNA damage and coordinate with multiple options for cellular response. The p53 protein activities depend upon its DNA binding. Specific p53 protein post-translational modifications are required for efficient sequence-specific binding and transcriptional activities. Non-sequence-specific DNA binding may involve a wide spectrum of p53 proteins and predominate as DNA damage is more severe or p53 protein is more highly induced. p53 protein is not strictly required for DNA damage sensing and repair. Rather, p53 protein may govern an apoptosis checkpoint through competition with DNA repair proteins for non-sequence-specific binding to exposed single-stranded regions in the DNA duplex. This model provides a framework for testing mechanisms of p53-mediated apoptosis dependent upon the p53 protein modification state, the level of p53 protein accumulation, the level of DNA damage and the capacity of the damaged cell to repair.

Dissociation of DNA binding and in vitro transcriptional activities dependent on the C terminus of P53 proteins.

Wild type p53 protein requires posttranslational modification within a carboxy-terminal negative regulatory domain to activate DNA binding and transcription. Binding of monoclonal antibody PAb421 to the carboxy-terminal domain reproduces this activation. In the absence of PAb421, we found that wild type p53 bound actively to a template containing two copies of the p21WAF1p53 binding site. However, in an in vitro transcription assay with partially purified basal transcription factors, p53 only partially activated transcription from the same binding site and required PAb421 for full activation. Oncogenic missense mutant p53 proteins (N239 to S239, G245 to S245, R273 to H273) bound the WAF1 doublet significantly and were activated further by PAb421. However, these mutants were inactive in the transcription assay, even with PAb421. These results indicate that sequence-specific binding and transcriptional activities of p53 can be dissociated through C-terminal interactions and suggest that conformational changes induced by the mutations alter p53 interactions with basal transcription factors.

SPAF, a new AAA-protein specific to early spermatogenesis and malignant conversion.

A novel spermatogenesis associated factor (SPAF) was found to be aberrantly expressed at the malignant conversion stage in a clonal epidermal model of chemical carcinogenesis. Sequence analysis revealed two ATPase modules, classifying this gene as a new member of the AAA-protein family (ATPase associated with diverse activities). Immunohistochemical staining of mouse testis sections with SPAF antibody localized expression to spermatogonia and early spermatocytes in the basal compartment of the seminiferous tubules. Northern and Western analysis of SPAF expression in testes of mice at different developmental stages confirmed its expression at early stages of spermatogenesis. In view of a mitochondrial-localization-like signal, sequence similarities to membrane-associated proteins, ATP binding properties, and intracellular expression patterns in testis, we speculate that SPAF protein may be involved in morphological and functional mitochondrial transformations during spermatogenesis. Ectopic expression of the SPAF gene in malignant epidermal cells may signify adoption of an early germ cell-like phenotype advantageous in malignant conversion.

P53 regulation and function in normal cells and tumors.

Mechanisms to protect organisms from the consequences of DNA damage include the tumor suppressor p53 pathway. p53 protein binds specifically to a DNA consensus sequence to induce growth inhibitory genes or nonspecifically to damaged sites leading to DNA repair or apoptosis. While p53 protein is susceptible to post-translational modifications and binding to other proteins, few of the modifications or associations have been demonstrated in the context of the cell. We used a novel, sensitive DNA binding assay to examine p53 proteins in lysates prepared from cells responding to DNA damage. Non-transformed progenitor keratinocytes exhibited rapid and sustained induction of activated p53 protein binding to the consensus sequence, correlated with sustained induction of a downstream target gene, the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. Binding to a mismatched DNA probe was transient and correlated with total p53 protein in the lysate, suggesting that most or all of the endogenous p53 proteins induced after damage were capable of mismatched DNA binding. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) derivates showed defects in induction p53 protein after DNA damage and disproportional losses in DNA binding, compared to total p53 protein steady state levels, along with increased NDN2/p53 association. Maximum induction of endogenous p53 protein binding to the mismatched probe correlated with transcription-independent induction of apoptosis. We suggest a model in which activated forms of p53 carry out transcription-dependent functions in growth arrest and DNA repair which may vary by cell type, while most or all wild type forms of p53 are capable of binding to damaged DNA. p53 protein loss of binding to damaged DNA causes failure of cells to trigger apoptosis and may lead to resistance to chemotherapy. Implications for new directions in therapeutics include functional molecular profiling of individual patient tumors for p53 DNA binding to predict treatment response better than mutational analysis alone and targeted activation of p53 DNA damage binding in tumor cells for increasing their sensitivity to chemotherapy.

P53 regulation and function in normal cells and tumors

Mechanisms to protect organisms from the consequences of DNA damage include the tumor suppressor p53 pathway. p53 protein binds specifically to a DNA consensus sequence to induce growth inhibitory genes or nonspecifically to damaged sites leading to DNA repair or apoptosis. While p53 protein is susceptible to post-translational modifications and binding to other proteins, few of the modifications or associations have been demonstrated in the context of the cell. We used a novel, sensitive DNA binding assay to examine p53 proteins in lysates prepared from cells responding to DNA damage. Non-transformed progenitor keratinocytes exhibited rapid and sustained induction of activated p53 protein binding to the consensus sequence, correlated with sustained induction of a downstream target gene, the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. Binding to a mismatched DNA probe was transient and correlated with total p53 protein in the lysate, suggesting that most or all of the endogenous p53 proteins induced after damage were capable of mismatched DNA binding. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) derivates showed defects in induction p53 protein after DNA damage and disproportional losses in DNA binding, compared to total p53 protein steady state levels, along with increased NDN2/p53 association. Maximum induction of endogenous p53 protein binding to the mismatched probe correlated with transcription-independent induction of apoptosis. We suggest a model in which activated forms of p53 carry out transcription-dependent functions in growth arrest and DNA repair which may vary by cell type, while most or all wild type forms of p53 are capable of binding to damaged DNA. p53 protein loss of binding to damaged DNA causes failure of cells to trigger apoptosis and may lead to resistance to chemotherapy. Implications for new directions in therapeutics include functional molecular profiling of individual patient tumors for p53 DNA binding to predict treatment response better than mutational analysis alone and targeted activation of p53 DNA damage binding in tumor cells for increasing their sensitivity to chemotherapy.

P53 regulation and function in normal cells and tumors.

Mechanisms to protect organisms from the consequences of DNA damage include the tumor suppressor p53 pathway. p53 protein binds specifically to a DNA consensus sequence to induce growth inhibitory genes or nonspecifically to damaged sites leading to DNA repair or apoptosis. While p53 protein is susceptible to post-translational modifications and binding to other proteins, few of the modifications or associations have been demonstrated in the context of the cell. We used a novel, sensitive DNA binding assay to examine p53 proteins in lysates prepared from cells responding to DNA damage. Non-transformed progenitor keratinocytes exhibited rapid and sustained induction of activated p53 protein binding to the consensus sequence, correlated with sustained induction of a downstream target gene, the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. Binding to a mismatched DNA probe was transient and correlated with total p53 protein in the lysate, suggesting that most or all of the endogenous p53 proteins induced after damage were capable of mismatched DNA binding. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) derivates showed defects in induction p53 protein after DNA damage and disproportional losses in DNA binding, compared to total p53 protein steady state levels, along with increased NDN2/p53 association. Maximum induction of endogenous p53 protein binding to the mismatched probe correlated with transcription-independent induction of apoptosis. We suggest a model in which activated forms of p53 carry out transcription-dependent functions in growth arrest and DNA repair which may vary by cell type, while most or all wild type forms of p53 are capable of binding to damaged DNA. p53 protein loss of binding to damaged DNA causes failure of cells to trigger apoptosis and may lead to resistance to chemotherapy. Implications for new directions in therapeutics include functional molecular profiling of individual patient tumors for p53 DNA binding to predict treatment response better than mutational analysis alone and targeted activation of p53 DNA damage binding in tumor cells for increasing their sensitivity to chemotherapy.

Differentially expressed protein Pdcd4 inhibits tumor promoter-induced neoplastic transformation.

An mRNA differential display comparison of mouse JB6 promotion-sensitive (P+) and -resistant (P-) cells identified a novel gene product that inhibits neoplastic transformation. The JB6 P+ and P- cells are genetic variants that differ in their transformation response to tumor promoters; P+ cells form anchorage-independent colonies that are tumorigenic, and P- cells do not. A differentially displayed fragment, A7-1, was preferentially expressed in P- cells at levels >/=10-fold those in P+ cells, making its mRNA a candidate inhibitor of neoplastic transformation. An A7-1 cDNA was isolated that was identical to murine Pdcd4 gene cDNAs, also known as MA-3 or TIS, and analogous to human H731 and 197/15a. Until now, the function of the Pdcd4 protein has been unknown. Paralleling the mRNA levels, Pdcd4 protein levels were greater in P- than in P+ cells. Pdcd4 mRNA was also expressed at greater levels in the less progressed keratinocytes of another mouse skin neoplastic progression series. To test the hypothesis that Pdcd4 inhibits tumor promoter-induced transformation, stable cell lines expressing antisense Pdcd4 were generated from parental P- cells. The reduction of Pdcd4 proteins in antisense lines was accompanied by acquisition of a transformation-sensitive (P+) phenotype. The antisense-transfected cells were reverted to their initial P- phenotype by overexpression of a Pdcd4 sense fragment. These observations demonstrate that the Pdcd4 protein inhibits neoplastic transformation.

Induction of reactive oxygen species without 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine formation in DNA of initiated mouse keratinocytes treated with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate.

Evidence for the involvement of oxidative stress in 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-mediated tumor promotion has focused on non-initiated immune cells, tumor cell lines and non-initiated epidermis treated in vivo. This paper reports the effects of TPA on 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8OHdG) formation and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cloned initiated mouse epidermal keratinocytes in order to determine whether TPA can directly damage DNA through ROS production within the keratinocytes. Using high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC-EC), TPA did not induce 8OHdG formation in DNA of initiated keratinocytes treated under a variety of conditions. The reliability of the HPLC-EC system is demonstrated by (i) the linearity of the 8OHdG standard curve; (ii) the consistency of 8OHdG measurements in calf thymus and cellular DNA; and (iii) the dose-dependent increase in 8OHdG in DNA of initiated keratinocytes treated with UVC in the presence and absence of H2O2. Though not DNA-damaging, TPA induced a 65% increase in ROS (P < 0.05) as detected by luminol-dependent chemiluminescence. These results support a mechanism for the role of oxidative stress in tumor promotion that does not involve direct DNA damage to the keratinocyte target cell. The relationship between ROS, signal transduction and tumor promotion is discussed in light of the above results which is consistent with the role of TPA-induced ROS as second messengers in signal transduction.

Altered gene expression in a clonal epidermal cell model of carcinogenesis identified by RNA differential display.

We have developed a multistage model system in which a normal mouse keratinocyte clone has been initiated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and variant clones derived with benign or malignant phenotypes. To identify specific genes altered during mouse skin carcinogenesis, the gene expression patterns of the normal parental epidermal cell, an initiated cell, a benign papilloma, and a poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma were compared using RNA differential display. Most alterations in gene expression were observed at malignant conversion, that is, in the poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma that is known to have deregulated expression of p53. The sequence of a cloned cDNA fragment lost in the poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma was nearly identical to the 3' region of an adhesion-related kinase which is involved in homophilic cell aggregation. It is found in normal epidermal progenitor cells as well as tumorigenic cells with differentiation potential, but not in tumorigenic cells with a poorly differentiated phenotype, suggesting that this adhesion-related kinase may be involved in epidermal cell differentiation. Differential display within the cloned epidermal cell model appears to be useful in detecting and identifying malignant conversion-associated genes which then can be tested directly for their potential role in epithelial carcinogenesis.

Wild-type and mutant forms of p53 activate human topoisomerase I: a possible mechanism for gain of function in mutants.

p53-interacting proteins from mouse epidermal cells and human myelogenous leukemia cells were isolated by affinity chromatography using glutathione S-transferase (GST)-p53 fusion proteins. One of these proteins was topoisomerase I, whose interaction with p53 was recently reported. A carboxyl-terminal fragment containing the last 92 amino acids of p53 (GST-299-390) was sufficient for binding to topoisomerase I. Nanomolar concentrations of either GST-p53 or GST-299-390 enhanced the catalytic activity of purified human topoisomerase I. Purified wild-type human p53 and point mutants Ser-239, Ser-245, and His-273 were equivalent in their enhancement of human topoisomerase I activity. Because topoisomerase I is thought to promote genetic recombination, competence to enhance topoisomerase I catalytic activity coupled with a deficiency in transcriptional activity may be a mechanism for gain of function in mutant p53 proteins.

Activities and response to DNA damage of latent and active sequence-specific DNA binding forms of mouse p53.

The mouse p53 protein generated by alternative splicing (p53as) has amino acid substitutions at its C terminus that result in constitutively active sequence-specific DNA binding (active form), whereas p53 protein itself binds inefficiently (latent form) unless activated by C-terminal modification. Exogenous p53as expression activated transcription of reporter plasmids containing p53 binding sequences and inhibited growth of mouse and human cells lacking functional endogenous p53. Inducible p53as in stably transfected p53 null fibroblasts increased p21(WAF1/Cip-1/Sdi) and decreased bcl-2 protein steady-state levels. Endogenous p53as and p53 proteins differed in response to cellular DNA damage. p53 protein was induced transiently in normal keratinocytes and fibroblasts whereas p53as protein accumulation was sustained in parallel with induction of p21(WAF1/Cip-1/Sdi) protein and mRNA, in support of p53as transcriptional activity. Endogenous p53 and p53as proteins in epidermal tumor cells responded to DNA damage with different kinetics of nuclear accumulation and efficiencies of binding to a p53 consensus DNA sequence. A model is proposed in which C-terminally distinct p53 protein forms specialize in functions, with latent p53 forms primarily for rapid non-sequence-specific binding to sites of DNA damage and active p53 forms for sustained regulation of transcription and growth.

DNA binding specificity of proteins derived from alternatively spliced mouse p53 mRNAs.

The mouse p53 gene generates two alternative splice products encoding p53 protein and a naturally occurring protein (p53as) with changes at the C-terminus. In p53as the negative regulatory region for DNA binding and PAb421 antibody binding site are replaced, and p53as is constitutively active for sequence-specific DNA binding. Using the technique of randomized synthetic oligonucleotide in cyclic amplification and selection of targets, we have found that p53as and p53 proteins have the same DNA binding specificities but that these specificities frequently diverge from the consensus of two copies of PuPuPuCATGPyPyPy. The importance of tetranucleotide CATG was confirmed but there was a less rigorous requirement for patterns of flanking or intervening sequences. In particular, the three purines upstream and three pyrimidines downstream of CATG are not required for p53 or p53as binding, 29 or more intervening nucleotides are tolerated, and one CATG is sufficient where adjacent nucleotides contain a region of homology with certain previously reported non-consensus p53 binding sequences. These results suggested further definition of the non-consensus motifs, and database searches with these uncovered additional candidate genes for p53 protein binding. We conclude that p53as and perhaps other activated forms of p53 exert their effects on the same genes and that differential activities of p53 protein forms are not due to inherently different sequence selectivities of DNA binding.