[Robert Koch as a young rural doctor in Brandenburg and the Poznan region (1868-1880)]. / Robert Koch als junger Landarzt in Brandenburg und Posen (1868­1880).

The bacteriologist and Nobel Prize winner Robert Koch (1843-1910) is one of the most important and best-known scientists in German history. Many people associate him not only with the institute named after him (today the Robert Koch Institute is Germany's National Public Health Institute), but above all, with his work as a "microbe hunter". Koch achieved world fame with the discovery of the tuberculosis pathogen in 1882. To research and combat infectious diseases, he undertook expeditions to foreign countries. This article deals with a lesser-known episode in Robert Koch's life - his years as a young rural doctor in the then Prussian provinces of Brandenburg and Posen. After a chronological description of Robert Koch's "wandering years", the focus is directed to today's culture of remembrance. The question is discussed in which way, if at all, the memory of Robert Koch is maintained at the authentic places.

[Kurt Huldschinsky: A pioneer in the struggle against rickets]. / Kurt Huldschinsky: Ein Vorreiter im Kampf gegen Rachitis.

Kurt Huldschinsky (1883-1940) was a German pediatrician who was one of the international leaders in the field of rickets research between the two world wars. After his medical studies, he served at the Kaiserin-Auguste-Victoria-Haus in Berlin and at the University Children's Hospital in Vienna, among other places. After World War I, he worked with the famous orthopedist Konrad Biesalski at the Oskar-Helene-Heim for the healing and education of frail children in Berlin. Here he was the first to prove that exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from mercury vapor lamps ("artificial sunlight") could cure rickets in young children, which is mostly caused by vitamin D deficiency. He published his discovery in this journal - the Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift [German Medical Weekly] - in 1919. For this groundbreaking scientific achievement and his further research into the prevention and treatment of rickets, Huldschinsky was awarded the Otto Heubner Prize of the German Association of Pediatrics in 1926. He was even nominated for the Nobel Prize in Medicine. As a Jew, however, he had to flee Germany from the National Socialists in 1933/34. Together with his wife and daughter, he emigrated to Egypt, where he died in Alexandria on October 31, 1940. As Huldschinsky was for many decades almost forgotten, this article recalls the life and work of a meritorious physician and scientist.

Better air but not for all? Changes in second-hand smoke exposure at workplaces in 29 European countries over 10 years.

BACKGROUND: As the largest study of its kind to date, this article aims to describe the scope, trends over time, socio-demographic risk groups and the association with different progressive regulations relating to workplace second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure in 29 European countries during a period of high regulatory action. METHODS: Three waves of the European Working Conditions Surveys (2005, 2010 and 2015) were evaluated, including a total of 95 718 workers. The samples are representative for all employed residents of the 29 countries included. All interviews were conducted face-to-face at respondents' homes (computer-assisted personal interviews). SHS exposure among the overall working population of 29 countries-including smokers-was examined. Workplace regimes were grouped corresponding to the sub-scale 'workplace' as used in the Tobacco Control Scale. RESULTS: Between 2005 and 2015, SHS exposure in the European countries declined from around 19.0% (95% CI 16.1-22.0) to 9.9% (8.3-11.5). High SHS-exposure was reported by workers with the lowest level of education [11.5% (9.7-13.2)], among high-skilled manual labourers [14.3% (12.1-16.4)] and among those without a standard employment contract [11.2% (9.3-13.1)]. The highest exposure was reported by workers in the food service industry [19.7% (16.8-22.6)]. Countries with less workplace-related smoking prevention regulations were found to have the highest overall levels of exposure. CONCLUSION: This multinational series of cross-sectional surveys on the trends in passive smoking in the workplace have shown that countries with more comprehensive workplace smoking bans overall report lower levels of SHS exposure among their work force as compared with slow progressing countries.

[Rahel Hirsch (1870-1953): A Tribute For The 150th Birthday Of The First Female Professor Of Medicine In Germany]. / Rahel Hirsch: Zum 150. Geburtstag der ersten Medizinprofessorin Deutschlands.

Rahel Hirsch, whose 150th birthday was celebrated on 15 September 2020, is one of the female pioneers of medicine in Germany. Since it was not yet possible for women to study medicine in Germany at the end of the 19th century, she initially worked as a teacher. In 1898 she went to Switzerland to study medicine, graduating in Strasbourg in 1903. From 1903 to 1919 she worked in the 2nd Medical Clinic of the Berlin Charité hospital. Due to her scientific achievements, she was the first female medical doctor in Prussia to be awarded the title of professor in 1913. Her early investigations into the permeability of the intestinal mucosa for large corpuscular particles and their renal elimination were initially met with rejection and ignorance. It took more than half a century until the phenomena she discovered found their way into the specialist literature as the "Hirsch effect". After the First World War, Rahel Hirsch worked mainly in her own practice. As a Jew during the dictatorship of the National Socialists, she was marginalised and increasingly endangered, and emigrated to England in 1938. There she lived in modest circumstances and died in London in 1953. Rahel Hirsch, who asserted herself in a male-dominated environment both as a doctor and as a scientist, is a suitable role model for those who work for more gender equality in medicine and society today.

Waterpipe Use among Adolescents in Germany: Prevalence, Associated Consumer Characteristics, and Trends (German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents, KiGGS).

Waterpipe (WP) use is popular among youth worldwide, but epidemiological data from Germany are scarce. We aimed to describe prevalence rates of WP use (current, last 12 months, ever) and analysed correlates and trends among 11- to 17-year-olds in Germany. Analyses were based on data from the "German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents" study during 2014-2017 (n = 6599). Changes in WP use prevalence compared with 2009-2012 were used to describe trends. Associations with sociodemographic characteristics and cigarette smoking were assessed with multivariable logistic regression models. Prevalence of current WP use among adolescents was 8.5% (95% confidence interval (CI) = 7.5-9.6), use in the last 12 months was 19.7% (95% CI = 18.3-21.2), and ever use was 25.8% (95% CI = 24.2-27.5). High prevalence rates were particularly found among 16-17-year-olds. During 2009-2012, these prevalence rates were 9.0%, 18.5%, and 26.1%, respectively. WP use was associated with older age, male sex, migration background, lower educational level, and current smoking status. Among current WP users, 66.2% (95% CI = 60.0-71.9) identified themselves as non-smokers, and 38.1% (95% CI = 32.5-44.0) had used WP ≥ three times in the last month. WP consumption is popular among German youth, and prevalence rates have not changed over time. Specific prevention strategies to reduce harmful WP consumption among youth should be implemented.

Individual and interpersonal correlates of cardiorespiratory fitness in adults - Findings from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey.

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is an established predictor of adverse health outcomes. The aim of this study is to investigate potential behavioral, interpersonal and socioeconomic correlates of CRF among men and women living in Germany using data from a population-based nationwide cross-sectional study. 1,439 men and 1,486 women aged 18-64 participated in the German Health Interview and Examination Survey (2008-2011) and completed a standardized sub-maximal cycle ergometer test. Maximal oxygen consumption ([Formula: see text]) in ml·min-1·kg-1 was estimated. Mean values of VO2max for various anthropometric, behavioral, interpersonal, and sociodemographic variables were estimated. Linear regression analyses using multiple imputations technique for missing values was performed to analyze the influence of potential correlates on CRF. Women with high alcohol consumption had higher [Formula: see text], (ß = 2.20; 95% CI 0.98 to 3.42) than women with low alcohol consumption and women with high occupational status had higher [Formula: see text] (ß = 1.83; 95% CI 0.21 to 3.44) in comparison to women with low occupational status. Among men, high fruit intake (ß = 1.52; 95% CI 0.63 to 2.40), compared to low or medium fruit intake and performing at least 2.5 hours of total PA per week (ß = 2.19; 95% CI 1.11 to 3.28), compared to less than 2.5 hours was associated with higher [Formula: see text]. Among both men and women, lower body mass index, lower waist circumference and higher levels of physical exercise were considerably associated with higher [Formula: see text]. Among women, those in higher age groups showed a considerably lower level of [Formula: see text] compared with those aged 18-24. Furthermore, mean estimated [Formula: see text] was higher among men (36.5; 95% CI 36.0 to 37.0) than among women (30.3; 95% CI 29.8 to 30.7). Despite the cross-sectional nature of the current study, we conclude that several behavioral, anthropometric, and sociodemographic factors are associated with CRF in the general adult population in Germany. These results can provide evidence to tailor prevention measures according to the needs of specific subgroups.

["Medicine is a social science" - the 200th birthday of Salomon Neumann]. / "Die Medizin ist eine soziale Wissenschaft" ­ zum 200. Geburtstag von Salomon Neumann.

Salomon Neumann (1819-1908) is one of the outstanding representatives of 19th century social medicine. As a medical reformer, statistician and city councilor, he made a significant contribution to improving social and hygienic conditions in Berlin. His most famous work was published in 1847 under the title "Die oeffentliche Gesundheitspflege und das Eigenthum" [Public Health and Property]. From 1859 to 1905, Neumann was active in the Berlin City Council for the improvement of the living conditions of the population. He was involved in the construction of municipal hospitals, supported the modernisation of sewage disposal, organised the Berlin censuses of 1861 and 1864 and was active in the field of health and social statistics. Not only was Neumann exposed to anti-Semitic reprisals during his lifetime, a foundation he founded to promote the science of Judaism was dissolved by the National Socialists in 1940. On the occasion of his 200th birthday, this article commemorates the life and work of the democratically minded and socially committed doctor and health politician. Salomon Neumann has rendered great services to social medicine in Germany.

[Effects of poverty for health and health behavior of children and adolescents : Results from KiGGS Wave 2]. / Auswirkungen von Armut auf den Gesundheitszustand und das Gesundheitsverhalten von Kindern und Jugendlichen : Ergebnisse aus KiGGS Welle 2.

INTRODUCTION: Differences in the health status and health behavior of children and adolescents are analyzed, taking the income situation of the family into account. METHOD: The data is based on the second wave of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS Wave 2, 2014-2017). Health outcomes are the subjective health, chronic health limitations, mental disorders, ADHD, consumption of fresh fruit, consumption of sugary soft drinks, physical activity, sports activity during leisure time, overweight, and obesity. The income situation is recorded using the equivalized household income. RESULTS: Poor children and adolescents are more likely to have health problems than their peers from the middle- and, especially, the high-income group; their health behavior is less favorable. The biggest relative income-related differences are found in subjective health. With statistical control for parental education and occupational status, income-related differences in health status remain consistent while being significantly reduced for health behavior. DISCUSSION: The results confirm that low family income has a significant impact on the health of children and adolescents. Partly, this also applies to their health behavior, whereby the observed differences between the income groups can be attributed mainly to parental education and occupational status. This shows once again that children and adolescents growing up in poverty should be a key target group for prevention and health promotion.

[The health status of children and adolescents with migration background in Germany : Results from KiGGS Wave 2]. / Zur gesundheitlichen Lage von Kindern und Jugendlichen mit Migrationshintergrund in Deutschland : Ergebnisse aus KiGGS Welle 2.

BACKGROUND: Even though 36.5% of children and adolescents living in Germany have a migration background (MB), data on the health of this population is scarce. With population-based data from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS Wave 2, 2014-2017), reliable statements can be given. METHODS: Data from KiGGS Wave 2 is used in order to report on general health status, mental health, and the distribution of allergic diseases among children and adolescents aged 3-17 years (n = 13,568). To determine overweight, standardized measurements of body weight and height (n = 3463) were used. In addition to the MB (none/one-sided/two-sided), the socioeconomic status (SES) is considered. In multivariate analyses among children and adolescents with MB, SES and the parents' duration of stay in Germany were included. RESULTS: Participants with a two-sided MB show lower prevalence of neurodermatitis (3.5% vs. 6.9%) and ADHS (2.0% vs. 5.1%) than those without a migration background and higher prevalence of fair to poor general health status (6.1% vs. 3.9%). Children and adolescents with a two-sided migration background are more often affected by overweight than those without migration background (22.1% vs. 12.2%). After considering SES, the chances of a diagnosed neurodermatitis and ADHS remain higher and the chances for overweight are lower in children and adolescents with a migration background than among those without migration background. If only children with MB are considered, SES and partially the parents' duration of stay in Germany are associated with health outcomes. CONCLUSION: Differences in the general health status of children and adolescents with and without MB vary depending on the observed indicators. The heterogeneity of children and adolescents with MB, e.g. regarding SES and parents' duration of stay, should be considered when planning and implementing measures of health promotion.

Socioeconomic Inequalities in the Rise of Adult Obesity: A Time-Trend Analysis of National Examination Data from Germany, 1990-2011.

OBJECTIVE: Despite extensive study of the obesity epidemic, research on whether obesity has risen faster in lower or in higher socioeconomic groups is inconsistent. This study examined secular trends in obesity prevalence by socioeconomic position and the resulting obesity inequalities in the German adult population. METHODS: Data were drawn from three national examination surveys conducted in 1990-1992, 1997-1999 and 2008-2011 (n = 18,541; age range: 25-69 years). Obesity was defined by a body mass index ≥30 kg/m2 using standardised measurements of body height and weight. Education and equivalised household disposable income were used as indicators of socioeconomic position. Time trends in socioeconomic inequalities in obesity were examined using linear probability and log-binomial regression models. RESULTS: In each survey period, the highest socioeconomic groups had the lowest prevalence of obesity. The low and medium socioeconomic groups showed increases in obesity prevalence, whereas no such trend was observed in the high socioeconomic groups. Absolute inequalities in obesity by income increased by an average of 0.53 percentage points per year (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.01-1.05, p = 0.047) among men and 0.47 percentage points per year (95% CI 0.05-0.90, p = 0.029) among women. Absolute inequalities in obesity by education increased on average by 0.64 percentage points per year (95% CI 0.19-1.08, p = 0.005) among women but not among men (0.33 percentage points, 95% CI -0.27 to 0.92, p = 0.283). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest a widening obesity gap between the top and the bottom of the socioeconomic spectrum. This has the potential to have adverse consequences for population health and health inequalities in coming decades. Interventions that are effective in preventing and reducing obesity in socially disadvantaged groups are needed.

Intergenerational Educational Pathways and Self-Rated Health in Adolescence and Young Adulthood: Results of the German KiGGS Cohort.

Health differences in social mobility are often analysed by income differences or different occupational positions. However, in early adulthood many young people still have very diffuse income situations and are not always fully integrated into the labour market despite many having finished school. This article focusses on the link between intergenerational educational pathways and self-rated health (SRH) among young adults considering their SRH in adolescence. The data source used is the German KiGGS cohort study. The analysis sample comprises 2175 young people at baseline (t0: 2003⁻2006 age 14⁻17) and first follow-up (t1: 2009⁻2012 age 19⁻24). Combining parent's and young people's highest school degree, the data can trace patterns of intergenerational educational pathways (constant high level of education, upward mobility, downward mobility, constant low level of education). Young people's SRH was recorded at t0 and t1. During adolescence and young adulthood, participants were less likely to report poor SRH if they had a constant high intergenerational education or if they were upwardly mobile. The differences were particularly striking among young adults: average marginal effects (AME) for poor SRH showed much higher risk among downwardly mobile compared to peers with an intergenerational constant high education (AME: 0.175 [0.099; 0.251]), while the upwardly mobile had a significantly lower risk for less than good SRH than peers with an intergenerational constant low level of education (AME: -0.058 [-0.113; -0.004]). In the context of great societal demands and personal developmental needs, educational differences in health tend to increase in young adulthood. Public Health should pay more attention to educational and health inequalities in young adulthood.

Health inequalities among children and adolescents in Germany. Developments over time and trends from the KiGGS study.

This study examines the extent to which health inequalities among children and adolescents in Germany have developed over the past decade. The analyses are based on data from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS), which are representative of the 0- to 17-year-old population in Germany. The KiGGS data were collected in three waves: the KiGGS baseline study (2003-2006), KiGGS Wave 1 (2009-2012) and KiGGS Wave 2 (2014-2017). Prevalences of five health outcomes are considered: general health, mental health problems, physical activity, the consumption of sugary soft drinks, and smoking. Moreover, it defines health inequalities in relation to differences in the socioeconomic status of the family (SES), an index derived from the parents' level of education, occupation and income, and considers both absolute and relative health inequalities. In order to do so, the Slope Index of Inequality (SII) and the Relative Index of Inequality (RII) were calculated using linear probability or log-binomial models. Significant inequalities were identified to the detriment of young people from families with a low SES. These inequalities were particularly pronounced in the KiGGS Wave 2 data with regard to general health and the consumption of sugary soft drinks. Additionally, evidence from trend analyses for these two outcomes suggests that relative inequalities have increased. However, absolute inequalities decreased during the same period, and this also applies to smoking. The persistently high and, in some cases, widened levels of health inequalities indicate that adolescents from families with a low SES do not benefit to the same extent from disease prevention and health promotion measures for children and adolescents as young people from families with a higher SES.

Educational differences in the prevalence of behavioural risk factors in Germany and the EU - Results from the European Health Interview Survey (EHIS) 2.

This article examines educational differences in the prevalence of behavioural risk factors among adults and compares the results for Germany with the average from the European Union (EU). Data were derived from the second wave of the European Health Interview Survey, which took place between 2013 and 2015 (EHIS 2). Analyses were conducted using a regression-based calculation of relative and absolute educational differences in the prevalence of behavioural risk factors, based on self-reported data from women and men aged between 25 and 69 (n=217,215). Current smoking, obesity, physical activity lasting less than 150 minutes per week, heavy episodic drinking and non-daily fruit or vegetable intake are more prevalent among people with a low education level than those with a high education level. This applies to Germany as well as the EU average. Overall, the relative educational differences identified for these risk factors place Germany in the mid-range compared to the EU average. However, relative educational differences in current smoking and heavy episodic drinking are more manifest among women in Germany than the EU average, with the same applying to low physical activity among men. In contrast, relative educational differences in non-daily fruit or vegetable intake are less pronounced among women and men in Germany than the average across the EU. Increased efforts are needed in various policy fields to improve the structural conditions underlying health behaviour, particularly for socially disadvantaged groups, and increase health equity.

30 years after the fall of the Berlin Wall: Regional health differences in Germany.

Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, considerable effort was made to bring the living conditions and levels of social participation in the former East German federal states into line with the former West German federal states. As a result, differences in health between the East and the West diminished significantly, in many cases as early as the 1990s, examples being life expectancy and cardiovascular mortality. In regard to health behaviour, the overall tendency has also clearly been one of convergence. Thus, only very small differences can be observed today, for example in the use of tobacco or in the prevalence of obesity. Yet the results also highlight the insufficiency of regarding the remaining differences as a simple comparison between East and West. Instead, the focus should shift towards smaller-scale approaches that take regional differences in living conditions into account.

[Time trends of occupational differences in smoking behaviour of employed men and women in Germany : Results of the 1999-2013 microcensus]. / Zeitliche Entwicklung berufsgruppenspezifischer Unterschiede im Rauchverhalten von erwerbstätigen Männern und Frauen in Deutschland : Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus 1999­2013.

BACKGROUND: Studies show that people with a low occupational status are more likely to smoke than those with a high occupational status. Against the background of a general decline in tobacco consumption, time trends of occupational differences in smoking behaviour of employed men and women in Germany were examined. METHODS: The analyses were based on the last five waves of the German microcensus that included questions about smoking (1999, 2003, 2005, 2009 and 2013), taking only employed men and women aged 18-64 years into account (n = 688,746). Information on occupational position was summarised using international classifications of occupation (ISEI-08 and ISCO-08). Raw and model-based standardized prevalence estimates of current smoking were calculated. RESULTS: Between 1999 and 2013, the proportion of smokers in the working population fell from 39.9 to 34.4% (men) and from 30.6 to 26.8% (women). Differences between occupational status groups increased significantly: while the prevalence of smoking among employees with high occupational status decreased, it remained largely stable in the low status group. In 2013, the occupations with the highest proportion of smokers were waste disposal workers, cleaning staff, unskilled workers, truck and bus drivers, salespeople and cashiers, and employees in the catering industry. CONCLUSION: Since the beginning of the 2000s, the prevalence of smoking in the working population has declined. The strengthened tobacco control policy - e. g. the establishment of smoke-free workplace laws - might have contributed to this trend. In the context of workplace health promotion, tobacco prevention and cessation measures should be targeted at those professions in which smoking is still particularly common.

[Trends in smoking among adults in Germany : Evidence from seven population-based health surveys from 1991-2015]. / Zeitliche Trends beim Rauchverhalten Erwachsener in Deutschland : Ergebnisse sieben bundesweiter Gesundheitssurveys 1991­2015.

BACKGROUND: Despite decreasing smoking prevalence, tobacco use remains a key public health problem in Germany. For planning, managing, and evaluating tobacco control measures, regular data collection on smoking behavior in the population is essential. The aim of this article is to present trends in adult tobacco use since the early 1990s based on data from the health monitoring of the Robert Koch-Institute (RKI). METHODS: Analyses are based on data from 106,158 individuals aged 18 to 79 years, who participated in seven RKI health surveys from 1991-2015. Trends in tobacco consumption were analyzed using different indicators of smoking behavior, stratified by age, cohort, and gender. RESULTS: An overall falling smoking prevalence can be attributed primarily to a significant decline in the younger age groups since the early 2000s. Trend analysis by cohort reveals a declining prevalence for almost all cohorts over time from 1991-2015. Historically there has been is a sharp increase in the prevalence of women who have ever smoked between the 1930-1934 and 1950-1959 cohorts. The proportion of men who have ever smoked slightly decreased between the 1930-1934 and 1980-1984 cohorts. DISCUSSION: The shown overall decline happened concurrently with various tobacco prevention measures implemented during this period in Germany. If present trends related to continuous high smoking rates are sustained, it can be assumed that the tobacco consumption of the population will remain the source of adverse health outcomes. Accordingly, tobacco prevention measures and the promotion of smoking cessation in all age groups should be a public health priority.

Post-millennial trends of socioeconomic inequalities in chronic illness among adults in Germany.

OBJECTIVE: Time trends in health inequalities have scarcely been studied in Germany as only few national data have been available. In this paper, we explore trends in socioeconomic inequalities in the prevalence of chronic illness using Germany-wide data from four cross-sectional health surveys conducted between 2003 and 2012 (n = 54,197; ages 25-69 years). We thereby expand a prior analysis on post-millennial inequality trends in behavioural risk factors by turning the focus to chronic illness as the outcome measure. The regression-based slope index of inequality (SII) and relative index of inequality (RII) were calculated to estimate the extent of absolute and relative socioeconomic inequalities in chronic illness, respectively. RESULTS: The results for men revealed a significant increase in the extent of socioeconomic inequalities in chronic illness between 2003 and 2012 on both the absolute and relative scales (SII2003 = 0.06, SII2012 = 0.17, p-trend = 0.013; RII2003 = 1.18, RII2012 = 1.57, p-trend = 0.013). In women, similar increases in socioeconomic inequalities in chronic illness were found (SII2003 = 0.05, SII2012 = 0.14, p-trend = 0.022; RII2003 = 1.14, RII2012 = 1.40, p-trend = 0.021). Whereas in men this trend was driven by an increasing prevalence of chronic illness in the low socioeconomic group, the trend in women was predominantly the result of a declining prevalence in the high socioeconomic group.

[Differences in subjective health, mental health, and health behavior among 11- to 17-year-olds at secondary schools in Germany : Results of the German health interview and examination survey for children and adolescents: first follow-up (KiGGS Wave 1)]. / Unterschiede in der subjektiven und psychischen Gesundheit und im Gesundheitsverhalten bei 11- bis 17-jährigen Jugendlichen an weiterführenden Schulen in Deutschland : Ergebnisse der Studie zur Gesundheit von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland: Erste Folgebefragung (KiGGS Welle 1).

BACKGROUND: Social inequalities in health can already be found among children and adolescents to the disadvantage of socially deprived population groups. This paper aims to detect, whether differences in subjective health, mental health and health behavior among young people are due to the secondary school type attended and whether these associations exist independently of the family's socioeconomic position (SEP). METHODS: The data basis was the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS Wave 1, 2009-2012). Data of 11- to 17-year-old girls and boys (n = 4665) who attend different types of secondary schools in Germany were analyzed. The dependent variables were self-rated health, findings of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for the detection of psychological abnormalities, as well as self-reported information regarding leisure sport, tobacco, and alcohol consumption. Prevalence and odds ratios (ORs) based on logistic regressions are shown. RESULTS: For the majority of the examined indicators, it can be shown that adolescents in lower secondary schools are more likely to report worse self-rated health and mental problems and engage in unhealthy behavior than peers in grammar schools ("Gymnasium"). The differences decrease after controlling for family's SEP but mostly remain statistically significant. Adolescents who don't attend grammar schools are most strongly disadvantaged in terms of inattention/hyperactivity for both gender (OR: 2.29 [1.70-3.08]), smoking among girls (2.91 [1.85-4.57]) and physical inactivity (no leisure sport) among boys (OR: 2.71 [1.85-3.95]). DISCUSSION: Unequal health opportunities should be viewed in relation to people's living conditions. For adolescents, school constitutes an important setting for learning, experience, and health. The results indicate divergent needs of school-based health promotion and prevention regarding differences among gender and type of school.

Oral health behaviour of children and adolescents in Germany. Results of the cross-sectional KiGGS Wave 2 study and trends.

Oral health behaviour plays a key role in the prevention of caries and periodontitis. This article describes the prevalence, determinants and trends of tooth brushing frequency and utilization of dental check-ups. The analyses are based on the data from the second wave of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS Wave 2, 2014-2017). The results show that around 80% of children and adolescents meet the recommended tooth brushing frequency and utilization of dental check-ups. Around one fifth of children and adolescents do not meet the recommendations. 14- to 17-year-old adolescents, as well as those with low socioeconomic status and a migration background are groups which are particularly at risk. Compared to the KiGGS baseline study (2003-2006), tooth brushing frequency and utilization of dental check-ups has improved. While this positive development is apparent for nearly all the population groups analysed, the same risk groups that were identified by the baseline study are also evident in the KiGGS Wave 2 results. Targeted measures directed at specific target groups to promote oral health behaviour at younger ages should therefore be maintained and expanded, respectively.