Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke at work, at home, and during leisure time: a cross-sectional population sample.

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is among the most common environmental health risks, with a striking and immediate biological response and increased disease risk. Exposure studies have looked mostly at worksite or home exposures, whereas total exposure levels at the population level are rarely reported. This study examined ETS exposure at work, at home, and during leisure time in a cross-sectional population sample of working-age adults. Our aim was to monitor changes in ETS exposure from 1992 to 2002. More detailed information on duration of exposure, distribution of exposure sites, and patterns of exposure was obtained in 2002. Data were based on Finland's national population chronic disease risk-factor surveys (conducted every 5 years). Total sample size varied from 8,000 to 13,500. The survey includes a self-administered questionnaire about ETS exposure at different sites. The proportion of nonsmoking persons exposed to ETS declined throughout the study period among both men and women. In 2002, 5.9% of male and 3.6% of female nonsmokers were exposed to ETS 1 hour or more per day, whereas 5.8% of men and 1.7% women were exposed less than 1 hour daily. Worksite exposure was more common among younger age groups of both sexes, but nonsmoking women in older age groups received more exposure at home than at worksites. Policy developments on ETS should aim to protect the whole population from ETS in all environments given that health risks from ETS often persist at home and in leisure environments. Total exposure levels should be studied to assess the health impacts of ETS.

Exposure to MTBE, TAME and aromatic hydrocarbons during gasoline pump maintenance, repair and inspection.

The exposure of gasoline pump repairers and inspectors to gasoline was studied at service stations and repair shops in Finland in April-June 2004. The average air temperature ranged from 7 degrees C to 16 degrees C and wind speed from 2.5 to 7 m/s. The gasoline blends contained mixtures of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME), the total content of oxygenates being 11-12%. The content of benzene was <1%. Breathing zone air was collected during the work task using passive monitors. The mean sampling period was 4.5 h. The mean TWA-8 h concentrations for MTBE, TAME, hexane, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene were 4.5, 1.3, 0.55, 0.23, 2.2, 0.26 and 1.1 mg/m3, respectively. None of the individual benzene concentrations exceeded the binding limit value for benzene (3.25 mg/m3). The sum concentration of MTBE and TAME in urine was between 8.9 and 530 nmol/l in individual post-shift samples. The individual sum concentrations of the metabolites tert-butyl alcohol and tert-amyl alcohol collected the following morning after the exposure ranged from 81 to 916 nmol/l. All individual results were below corresponding biological action levels. Exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons was estimated from post-shift urine samples, with benzene showing the highest concentration (range 4.4 and 35 nmol/l in non-smokers). The exposure levels were similar to those measured in previous studies during unloading of tanker lorries and railway wagons. The results indicated a slightly higher exposure for inspectors, who calibrated fuel pump gauges at the service stations, than for pump repairers. No significant skin exposure occurred during the study.

Urinary hydroxy-metabolites of naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene as markers of exposure to diesel exhaust.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess the exposure of bus-garage and waste-collection workers to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) derived from diesel exhaust by the measurement of levels of seven urinary PAH metabolites: 2-naphthol, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, 1+9-hydroxyphenanthrene, 4-hydroxyphenanthrene and 1-hydroxypyrene. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: One urine sample from each of 46 control persons, and one pre-shift and two post-shift spot urine samples from 32 exposed workers were obtained in winter and in summer. The metabolites were analysed after enzymatic hydrolysis by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. RESULTS: The sum of seven PAH metabolites (mean 3.94 +/- 3.40 and 5.60 +/- 6.37 micromol/mol creatinine in winter and summer, respectively) was higher [P=0.01, degrees of freedom (df) =61.2 and P=0.01, df=67.6 in winter and summer, respectively] in the exposed group than in the control group (mean 3.18 +/- 3.99 and 3.03 +/- 2.01 micromol/mol creatinine in winter and summer, respectively). The mean concentrations of 2-naphthol among exposed and controls ranged between 3.34 and 4.85 micromol/mol creatinine and 2.51 and 2.58 micromol/mol creatinine, respectively (P<0.01 in winter, P<0.03 in summer). The mean level of the hydroxyphenanthrenes in the samples of exposed workers was between 0.40 and 0.70 micromol/mol creatinine and in the control samples 0.40-0.60 micromol/mol creatinine. The concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene was higher among exposed workers in both pre-shift and post-shift samples (mean 0.10-0.15 micromol/mol creatinine) than in control group (mean 0.05-0.06 micromol/mol creatinine) in winter (P=0.002, df=78) and in summer (P<0.001, df=68). CONCLUSIONS: The urinary hydroxy-metabolites of naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene showed low exposure to diesel-derived PAHs; however, it was higher in exposed workers than in control group. Urinary PAH monohydroxy-metabolites measured in this study did not correlate with the PAHs in the air samples, reported earlier, in 2002 and 2003.

Analysis of particle and vapour phase PAHs from the personal air samples of bus garage workers exposed to diesel exhaust.

The levels of particle and vapour phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) derived from the diesel exhaust compounds in bus garage work were measured in winter and in summer. Five personal air samples were collected from the breathing zones of 22 garage workers every other day of consecutive weeks. Control samples (n = 22) were collected from office workers in Helsinki. Fifteen PAHs in the air samples were analysed by HPLC using a fluorescence detector. Statistically significant differences were observed between total PAH levels of the exposed workers (2241 and 1245 ng/m(3)) and the control group (254 and 275 ng/m(3)) in both winter (P < 0.001) and summer (P < 0.001). Phenanthrene, pyrene, benzo[ghi]perylene and fluoranthene were the major compounds in the particle phase, and naphthalene, phenanthrene and fluorene in the vapour phase. About 98% of PAHs measured were related to the vapour phase compounds, whereas the high molecular weight PAH compounds were detected only in the particle phase. The PAH levels in the garages were twice as high (P < 0.001) in winter as in summer. Even though the exposure levels were low in the bus garages, the low level does not allow conclusions to be drawn about the possible adverse health effects due to exposure to diesel exhaust.

Determination of maleic anhydride in occupational atmospheres.

Maleic anhydride has many uses in industry, but workers' exposure to it is poorly known. Our new method allows airborne maleic anhydride to be determined with a limit of quantification of 1 microg/m3 per 12 1 of air, i.e., the concentration of about 0.01 times the occupational exposure standard (0.4 mg/m3). Air samples are collected in Tenax tubes containing sodium sulfate as a drying agent. Maleic anhydride is eluted with methyl tert.-butyl ether containing 5% acetonitrile and 0.1% acetic anhydride, and determined by capillary gas chromatography with electron-capture detection without interference from generic anhydrides. The tested method suits both long-term and short-term measurements.

Exposure of garbage truck drivers and maintenance personnel at a waste handling centre to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons derived from diesel exhaust.

Exposure to diesel exhaust was evaluated in summer and winter by measuring vapour and particle phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Fifteen PAHs were simultaneously determined from the air samples obtained from truck drivers collecting household waste and maintenance personnel at a waste handling centre. The major compounds analysed from the personal air samples of exposed workers were naphthalene, phenanthrene and fluorene. The total PAH exposure (sum of 15 PAHs) of garbage truck drivers ranged from 71 to 2,660 ng m(-3) and from 68 to 900 ng m-3 in the maintenance work. The exposure of garbage truck drivers to benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) ranged from the mean of 0.03 to 0.3 ng m(-3) whereas no B[a]P in control samples or in those collected from maintenance workers was detected. A statistically significant difference in diesel-derived PAH exposure between the garbage truck drivers and the control group in both seasons (in summer p = 0.0022, degrees of freedom (df) 70.5; and in winter p < 0.0001, df = 80.4) was observed. Also, a significant difference in PAH exposure between the garbage truck drivers and the maintenance workers (in summer p < 0.0001, df = 50.1; and in winter p < 0.0001, df = 44.2) was obtained.