The diverse genetic origins of a Classical period Greek army.

Trade and colonization caused an unprecedented increase in Mediterranean human mobility in the first millennium BCE. Often seen as a dividing force, warfare is in fact another catalyst of culture contact. We provide insight into the demographic dynamics of ancient warfare by reporting genome-wide data from fifth-century soldiers who fought for the army of the Greek Sicilian colony of Himera, along with representatives of the civilian population, nearby indigenous settlements, and 96 present-day individuals from Italy and Greece. Unlike the rest of the sample, many soldiers had ancestral origins in northern Europe, the Steppe, and the Caucasus. Integrating genetic, archaeological, isotopic, and historical data, these results illustrate the significant role mercenaries played in ancient Greek armies and highlight how participation in war contributed to continental-scale human mobility in the Classical world.

Isotopic evidence for geographic heterogeneity in Ancient Greek military forces.

Increased mobility and human interactions in the Mediterranean region during the eighth through fifth centuries BCE resulted in heterogeneous communities held together by political and cultural affiliations, periodically engaged in military conflict. Ancient historians write of alliances that aided the Greek Sicilian colony Himera in victory against a Carthaginian army of hired foreign mercenaries in 480 BCE, and the demise of Himera when it fought Carthage again in 409 BCE, this time unaided. Archaeological human remains from the Battles of Himera provide unique opportunities to test early written history by geochemically assessing the geographic origins of ancient Greek fighting forces. We report strontium and oxygen isotope ratios of tooth enamel from 62 Greek soldiers to evaluate the historically-based hypothesis that a coalition of Greek allies saved Himera in 480 BCE, but not in 409 BCE. Among the burials of 480 BCE, approximately two-thirds of the individuals are non-local, whereas among the burials of 409 BCE, only one-quarter are non-local, in support of historical accounts. Although historical accounts specifically mention Sicilian Greek allies aiding Himera, isotopic values of many of the 480 BCE non-locals are consistent with geographic regions beyond Sicily, suggesting Greek tyrants hired foreign mercenaries from more distant places. We describe how the presence of mercenary soldiers confronts prevailing interpretations of traditional Greek values and society. Greek fighting forces reflect the interconnectedness and heterogeneity of communities of the time, rather than culturally similar groups of neighbors fighting for a common cause, unified by "Greekness," as promoted in ancient texts.

Bioarchaeological reconstruction of physiological stress during social transition in Albania.

OBJECTIVE: We test the hypothesis that physiological stress increased in response to increasing social turmoil following waves of colonization and social transition. The ways local conditions, including variation in geography, environment, and levels of urbanization impact physiological stress are also explored. MATERIALS: In Albania, the historic period is a sequence of different waves of colonization. Skeletal data come from three Albanian archaeological sites: Apollonia (n = 231), Durrës (n = 246), and Lofkënd (n = 129). METHODS: Prevalence of cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, linear enamel hypoplasia, and periosteal new bone formation are analyzed using chi-square and logistic regression tests. RESULTS: We observe increased skeletal manifestations of physiological stress between prehistoric and historic groups, but physiological stress is generally consistent through time. CONCLUSIONS: General increase in skeletal pathology between prehistoric and historic periods corresponds to broad increases in political unrest associated with colonization spanning the entire historic period. However, little difference in physiological stress across colonization episodes (Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Ottoman) suggests skeletal health is affected similarly by colonization, regardless of particularities in method and type of colonial control. SIGNIFICANCE: Examining human response to social change across broad time scales is useful in identifying broad patterns in the human experience. LIMITATIONS: Exploring variation across broad time scales and multiple sites is potentially problematic because confounding factors could impact results and interpretations. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Environmental, social, and geographic differences, likely impacted the lives and lifestyles of individuals living in the past and should be explored further to understand the nuances in local response to colonization.

Population history of southern Italy during Greek colonization inferred from dental remains.

OBJECTIVES: We are testing competing scenarios regarding the population history of the ancient Greek colonization of southern Italy using dental phenotypic evidence. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We collected dental metric and nonmetric trait data for 481 human skeletons from six archaeological sites along the Gulf of Taranto, dating to pre-colonial (900-700 BC) and post-colonial periods (700-200 BC). We are evaluating scenarios through an individual-level biodistance analysis using a three-pronged approach: (a) by analyzing levels of mobility in pre- and post-colonial periods under a model of isolation-by-distance; (b) by quantifying differences in group means and variances in pre- and post-colonial periods utilizing permutational multivariate analysis of variance and Betadisper analyses; and (c) by identifying ancestries of post-colonial individuals using naïve Bayes classification. RESULTS: Southern Italy during pre-colonial times was characterized by low levels of mobility and marked differences in group means and variances. During post-colonial times, mobility increased and there were no differences in group means and variances. About 18% of the people in post-colonial times were of Greek ancestry and lived equally distributed across Greek colonies and indigenous villages. Nevertheless, the overall biological composition and variability of southern Italy remained relatively unchanged across pre- and post-colonial periods. DISCUSSION: Our results support a scenario in which only few Greek colonists migrated to southern Italy and lived in smaller numbers alongside indigenous people in Greek colonies as well as in indigenous villages. Our results contradict a scenario in which large numbers of Greek invaders founded biologically isolated and substantially homogeneous colonial enclaves within conquered territories.

Examining the osteological paradox: Skeletal stress in mass graves versus civilians at the Greek colony of Himera (Sicily).

OBJECTIVES: Bioarchaeologists interpret skeletal stress as evidence of resilience or frailty, where absence of lesions might result from lack of exposure to pathogens (i.e., good health) or extreme vulnerability (i.e., selection). We examine physiological stress in two skeletal series from Greek Himera: (1) nine mass graves from the battles of Himera (480 and 409 BCE) and (2) Himeran civilians (648-409 BCE). Civilians are assumed to have died from multiple causes, including ill health leading to their deaths. Individuals from the battles presumably died while in relatively good health, in battle. More skeletal stress among civilians than battle casualties would support the idea that skeletal stress is a sign of frailty at Himera. We compare variation in skeletal stress between and among civilians and battle casualties. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH), and sub-periosteal new bone formation, were examined in 474 individuals (mass graves n = 64; civilians n = 410). RESULTS: Chi-square tests showed significantly higher prevalence of LEH (p = 0.04) and sub-periosteal new bone formation (p = 0.05) among young and mid-aged adult male civilians than mass grave casualties. Skeletal stress was also lower in the earlier battle, and varied among civilians with burial style. DISCUSSION: Our findings generally support the hypothesis that skeletal stress is evidence of frailty (i.e., leading to greater risk of mortality). However, the relationship between stress and frailty is complicated by social factors, when considering historical context. In particular, a possible "soldier-class" may have experienced less stress than the overall civilian population.