Choline kinase inhibition in rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVES: Little is known about targeting the metabolome in non-cancer conditions. Choline kinase (ChoKα), an essential enzyme for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, is required for cell proliferation and has been implicated in cancer invasiveness. Aggressive behaviour of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) led us to evaluate whether this metabolic pathway could play a role in RA FLS function and joint damage. METHODS: Choline metabolic profile of FLS cells was determined by (1)H magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)HMRS) under conditions of ChoKα inhibition. FLS function was evaluated using the ChoKα inhibitor MN58b (IC50=4.2 µM). For arthritis experiments, mice were injected with K/BxN sera. MN58b (3 mg/kg) was injected daily intraperitoneal beginning on day 0 or day 4 after serum administration. RESULTS: The enzyme is expressed in synovial tissue and in cultured RA FLS. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulation increased ChoKα expression and levels of phosphocholine in FLS measured by Western Blot (WB) and metabolomic studies of choline-containing compounds in cultured RA FLS extracts respectively, suggesting activation of this pathway in RA synovial environment. A ChoKα inhibitor also suppressed the behaviour of cultured FLS, including cell migration and resistance to apoptosis, which might contribute to cartilage destruction in RA. In a passive K/BxN arthritis model, pharmacologic ChoKα inhibition significantly decreased arthritis in pretreatment protocols as well as in established disease. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that ChoKα inhibition could be an effective strategy in inflammatory arthritis. It also suggests that targeting the metabolome can be a new treatment strategy in non-cancer conditions.

A new family of choline kinase inhibitors with antiproliferative and antitumor activity derived from natural products.

BACKGROUND: Choline kinase alpha (ChoKα) is a critical enzyme in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine, a major structural component of eukaryotic cell membranes. ChoKα is overexpressed in a large variety of tumor cells and has been proposed as a target for personalized medicine, both in cancer therapy and rheumatoid arthritis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Triterpene quinone methides (TPQ) bioactive compounds isolated from plants of the Celastraceae family and a set of their semisynthetic derivatives were tested against the recombinant human ChoKα. Those found active as potent enzymatic inhibitors were tested in vitro for antiproliferative activity against HT29 colorectal adenocarcinoma cells, and one of the active compounds was tested for in vivo antitumoral activity in mice xenographs of HT29 cells. RESULTS: Among 59 natural and semisynthetic TPQs tested in an ex vivo system, 14 were highly active as inhibitors of the enzyme ChoKα with IC50 <10 µM. Nine of these were potent antiproliferative agents (IC50 <10 µM) against tumor cells. At least one compound was identified as a new antitumoral drug based on its in vivo activity against xenographs of human HT-29 colon adenocarcinoma cells. CONCLUSIONS: The identification of a new family of natural and semisynthetic compounds with potent inhibitory activity against ChoKα and both in vitro antiproliferative and in vivo antitumoral activity supports further research on these inhibitors as potential anticancer agents. Their likely role as antiproliferative drugs deserves further studies in models of rheumatoid arthritis.

Rho GTPase Rac1: molecular switch within the galectin network and for N-glycan α2,6-sialylation/O-glycan core 1 sialylation in colon cancer in vitro.

The Rho GTPase Rac1 is a multifunctional protein working through different effector pathways. The emerging physiological significance of glycanlectin recognition gives reason to testing the possibility for an influence of modulation of Rac1 expression on these molecular aspects. Using human colon adenocarcinoma (SW620) cells genetically engineered for its up- and down-regulation (Rac1+ and Rac1- cells) along with wild-type and mock-transfected control cells, the questions are addressed whether the presence of adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins and distinct aspects of cell surface glycosylation are affected. Proceeding from RT-PCR data to Western blotting after two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and flow cytofluorimetry with non-crossreactive antibodies against six members of this lectin family (i.e. galectins-1, -3, -4, -7, -8 and -9), a reduced extent of the presence of galectins-1, -7 and -9 was revealed in the case of Rac1 cells. Application of these six galectins as probes to determination of cell reactivity for human lectins yielded relative increases in surface labelling of Rac1- cells with galectins-1, -3 and -7. Examining distinct aspects of cell surface glycosylation with a panel of 14 plant/fungal lectins disclosed a decrease in α2,6-sialylation of N-glycans and an increase in PNA-reactive sites (i.e. non-sialylated core 1 O-glycans), two alterations known to favour reactivity for galectins-1 and -3. Thus, manipulation of Rac1 expression selectively affects the expression pattern within the galectin network at the level of proteins and distinct aspects of cell surface glycosylation.

Variants in phospholipid metabolism and upstream regulators and non-small cell lung cancer susceptibility.

AIM: The relevance of the cytidine diphosphate-choline and Rho GTPases pathways in the pathogenesis of cancer has been previously demonstrated. We investigate by a case-control association study if genetics variants in these pathways are associated with risk of developing lung cancer. METHODS: Thirty-seven tag SNPs were evaluated as risk factor of NSCLC in 897 cases and 904 controls. RESULTS: Six SNPs were nominally associated with lung cancer risk, which were not significant after the Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. No association was observed with the remaining 31 analyzed SNPs, neither it was found significant in haplotype frequencies. CONCLUSIONS: Although the implication of the two pathways investigated in our study in carcinogenesis is well established, our null results suggest that common genetic variants in CDP-choline and Rho GTPases-related genes are not risk factors for lung cancer.

Acid ceramidase as a chemotherapeutic target to overcome resistance to the antitumoral effect of choline kinase α inhibition.

We have analyzed the response of primary cultures derived from tumor specimens of non small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients to choline kinase α (ChoKα) inhibitors. ChoKα inhibitors have been demonstrated to increase ceramides levels specifically in tumor cells, and this increase has been suggested as the mechanism that explain its proapoptotic effect in cancer cells. Here, we have investigated the molecular mechanism associated to the intrinsic resistance, and found that other enzyme involved in lipid metabolism, acid ceramidase (ASAH1), is specifically upregulated in resistant tumors. NSCLC cells with acquired resistance to ChoKα inhibitors also display increased levels of ASAH1. Accordingly, ASAH1 inhibition synergistically sensitizes lung cancer cells to the antiproliferative effect of ChoKα inhibitors. Thus, the determination of the levels of ASAH1 predicts sensitivity to targeted therapy based on ChoKα specific inhibition and represents a model for combinatorial treatments of ChoKα inhibitors and ASAH1 inhibitors. Considering that ChoKα inhibitors have been recently approved to enter Phase I clinical trials by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), these findings are anticipating critical information to improve the clinical outcome of this family of novel anticancer drugs under development.

Approaches for the study of cancer: towards the integration of genomics, proteomics and metabolomics

Recent technological advances, combined with the development of bioinformatic tools, allow us to better address biological questions combining -omic approaches (i.e., genomics, metabolomics and proteomics). This novel comprehensive perspective addresses the identification, characterisation and quantitation of the whole repertoire of genes, proteins and metabolites occurring in living organisms. Here we provide an overview of recent significant advances and technologies used in genomics, metabolomics and proteomics. We also underline the importance and limits of mass accuracy in mass spectrometry-based -omics and briefly describe emerging types of fragmentation used in mass spectrometry. The range of instruments and techniques used to address the study of each -omic approach, which provide vast amounts of information (usually termed "high-throughput" technologies in the literature) is briefly discussed, including names, links and descriptions of the main databases, data repositories and resources used. Integration of multiple -omic results and procedures seems necessary. Therefore, an emerging challenge is the integration of the huge amount of data generated and the standardisation of the procedures and methods used. Functional data integration will lead to answers to unsolved questions, hopefully, applicable to clinical practice and management of patients (AU)

A critical role for choline kinase-alpha in the aggressiveness of bladder carcinomas.

Bladder cancer is one of the most common causes of death in industrialized countries. New tumor markers and therapeutic approaches are still needed to improve the management of bladder cancer patients. Choline kinase-alpha (ChoKalpha) is a metabolic enzyme that has a role in cell proliferation and transformation. Inhibitors of ChoKalpha show antitumoral activity and are expected to be introduced soon in clinical trials. This study aims to assess whether ChoKalpha plays a role in the aggressiveness of bladder tumors and constitutes a new approach for bladder cancer treatment. We show here that ChoKalpha is constitutively altered in human bladder tumor cells. Furthermore, in vivo murine models, including an orthotopic model to mimic as much as possible the physiological conditions, revealed that increased levels of ChoKalpha potentiate both tumor formation (P< or =0.0001) and aggressiveness of the disease on different end points (P=0.011). Accordingly, increased levels of ChoKalpha significantly reduce survival of mice with bladder cancer (P=0.05). Finally, treatment with a ChoKalpha-specific inhibitor resulted in a significant inhibition of tumor growth (P=0.02) and in a relevant increase in survival (P=0.03).

Clinical and Translational Oncology accepted in SciSearch and journal citation reports

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It is about time that Spain launches a National Cancer Act?

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QSAR-derived choline kinase inhibitors: how rational can antiproliferative drug design be?

This review presents an overview of Choline Kinase (ChoK) inhibitors with antiproliferative activity. The consideration of ChoK as a novel target for the development of new anticancer drugs is justified. The synthesis of several derivatives based on structural modifications of hemicholinium-3 (HC-3) is not accompanied by potentiation of the neurological toxicity of HC-3. The increment of both ChoK inhibitory and antiproliferative activities was successfully obtained by the two following changes: a) substitution of the oxazonium moiety of HC-3 by several aromatic heterocycles, and b) using the 1,2-ethylene(bisbenzyl) moiety instead of the 4,4'-biphenyl fragment. In an attempt to understand the ChoK inhibitory activity, a quantitative structure-activity relationship was developed. The QSAR equations have described the forces involved in quantitative terms. The electron characteristic of the substituent at position 4 of the heterocycle and the lipophilic character of the whole molecule were found to significantly affect the antitumour activity in compounds 17-95. Trispyridinium compounds 91-95 are more potent than the bispyridinium ones 87-89 as ChoK inhibitors. Nevertheless, 91-95 are less active than 87-89 as antiproliferative agents because the latter show better lipophilicities to cross the cytosolic membranes. Inhibition of the growth of human tumours in nude mice has been demonstrated: Antitumour activity of compound 64 against human HT-29 produced a decrease of up to 70% in the size of the tumour in nude mice. These results indicate that ChoK can be used as a general target for anticancer drug design against Ras-dependent tumourigenesis.

Simultaneous tyrosine and serine phosphorylation of STAT3 transcription factor is involved in Rho A GTPase oncogenic transformation.

Stats (signal transducers and activators of transcription) are latent cytoplasmic transcription factors that on a specific stimulus migrate to the nucleus and exert their transcriptional activity. Here we report a novel signaling pathway whereby RhoA can efficiently modulate Stat3 transcriptional activity by inducing its simultaneous tyrosine and serine phosphorylation. Tyrosine phosphorylation is exerted via a member of the Src family of kinases (SrcFK) and JAK2, whereas the JNK pathway mediates serine phosphorylation. Furthermore, cooperation of both tyrosine as well as serine phosphorylation is necessary for full activation of Stat3. Induction of Stat3 activity depends on the effector domain of RhoA and correlates with induction of both Src Kinase-related and JNK activities. Activation of Stat3 has biological implications. Coexpression of an oncogenic version of RhoA along with the wild-type, nontransforming Stat3 gene, significantly enhances its oncogenic activity on human HEK cells, suggesting that Stat3 is an essential component of RhoA-mediated transformation. In keeping with this, dominant negative Stat3 mutants or inhibition of its tyrosine or serine phosphorylation completely abrogate RhoA oncogenic potential. Taken together, these results indicate that Stat3 is an important player in RhoA-mediated oncogenic transformation, which requires simultaneous phosphorylation at both tyrosine and serine residues by specific signaling events triggered by RhoA effectors.

Searching new targets for anticancer drug design: the families of Ras and Rho GTPases and their effectors.

The Ras superfamily of low-molecular-weight GTPases are proteins that, in response to diverse stimuli, control key cellular processes such as cell growth and development, apoptosis, lipid metabolism, cytoarchitecture, membrane trafficking, and transcriptional regulation. More than 100 genes of this superfamily grouped in six subfamilies have been described so far, pointing to the complexities and specificities of their cellular functions. Dysregulation of members of at least two of these families (the Ras and the Rho families) is involved in the events that lead to the uncontrolled proliferation and invasiveness of human tumors. In recent years, the cloning and characterization of downstream effectors for Ras and Rho proteins have given crucial clues to the specific pathways that lead to aberrant cellular growth and ultimately to tumorigenesis. A direct link between the functions of some of these effectors with the appearance of transformed cells and their ability to proliferate and invade surrounding tissues has been made. Accordingly, drugs that specifically alter their functions display antineoplasic properties, and some of these drugs are already under clinical trials. In this review, we survey the progress made in understanding the underlying molecular connections between carcinogenesis and the specific cellular functions elicited by some of these effectors. We also discuss new drugs with antineoplastic or antimetastatic activity that are targeted to specific effectors for Ras or Rho proteins.

Inhibition of ChoK is an efficient antitumor strategy for Harvey-, Kirsten-, and N-ras-transformed cells.

An increasing amount of evidence suggests that elevated PCho levels are related to the transforming properties of the H-Ras oncoprotein. Based on these observations, we have designed an antitumor strategy using choline kinase, the enzyme responsible of PCho production, as a novel target for drug discovery. However, little relationship between this lipid-related pathway and the other two Ras members, N- and K-ras, has been established. Since N- and K-ras are the most frequently mutated ras genes in human tumors, we have analyzed the PC-PLD/ChoK pathway and the sensitivity to ChoK inhibition of all three ras-transformed cells. Here we demonstrate that transformation by the three Ras oncoproteins results in increased levels of PCho to a similar extent, resulting from a similar constitutive increase of ChoK activity. As well, sensitivity to choline kinase inhibitors as antiproliferative drugs is similar in cell lines transformed by each of the three ras oncogenes, being in all cases higher than parental, nontransformed cells. In addition, H, K and N-ras-induced alterations in PC metabolism is discussed. These results indicate that ChoK can be used as a general target for anticancer drug design against Ras-dependent tumorigenesis.

Targeting new anticancer drugs within signalling pathways regulated by the Ras GTPase superfamily (Review).

A dynamic equilibrium or is responsible for the proper function of a living organism. Physiological events regulating proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, and cell arrest, modulates the correct homeostasis and functionality of all tissues. Cancer is a consequence of a disorder in these sequential events, which results in the alteration of the ratio between cell death, cell differentiation and cell proliferation that ultimately leads to an increase in the number of dysregulated cells. Most of the processes which control the are regulated by signalling pathways, whose components are currently being explored as potential targets for the design of antitumoral drugs. Many in vivo studies have shown that Ras and Rho proteins are key modulators of mitogenic signalling, and are involved in the carcinogenesis of several human tumors. The development of recent drugs that elicit antitumoral activity by blocking some of the Ras and/or Rho effects, is discussed in this review.

LUMO energy of model compounds of bispyridinium compounds as an index for the inhibition of choline kinase.

Eleven derivatives of 1,1'-[1,2-ethylenebis(benzene-1,4-diylmethylene)]bis(4-pyridinium) dibromides bearing various groups at C-4 of the pyridinium moiety were synthesized and examined for their inhibition of choline kinase (ChoK) and antiproliferative activities. The C-4 substituents include electron-releasing, neutral or electron-withdrawing groups. A one-parameter regression equation has been derived which satisfactorily describes the ex vivo inhibitory potency of ChoK of the title compounds. The electronic effect plays a critical function in the ex vivo inhibition of ChoK although the role of electrostatic interactions could be altered due to a solvation process of both ChoK and ligands.