Determination of 2,3-dihydroxypropionamide, an oxidative metabolite of acrylamide, in human urine by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry.

The general population is exposed to acrylamide (AA) mainly through food and tobacco smoke. AA is classified as probably carcinogenic to humans. Glycidamide (GA), as the primary oxidative metabolite, was identified to be the ultimate genotoxic agent. This warrants full investigation of the oxidative pathway in AA metabolism and the share of the oxidative compared to the reductive pathway. 2,3-Dihydroxy-propionamide (OH-PA) as the direct hydrolysis product of GA has been shown to be a major urinary oxidative metabolite in human AA metabolism. We developed an analytical method to reliably quantify OH-PA in urine by GC-MS after a multistep procedure including "stripping" on a solid phase material, lyophilization, silylation and re-extraction. With a detection limit of 1 µg/L, our method is sensitive enough to quantify OH-PA in all urine samples of the general population. Within and between series precisions were between 1.9% and 8.2% and mean recoveries between 97% and 101%. We applied this method to 30 urine samples from the general population. In all the samples, OH-PA was present in concentrations between 6.8 and 109.4 µg/L (median, 49.7 µg/L) with no difference between smokers and non-smokers. OH-PA concentrations were approximately ten times higher than expected from the metabolism of AA via GA. Currently, we cannot confirm OH-PA to be a specific biomarker of the oxidative pathway of AA metabolism. Other sources than AA respectively GA might need to be considered for the formation of OH-PA.

Excretion of 2,3-dihydroxy-propionamide (OH-PA), the hydrolysis product of glycidamide, in human urine after single oral dose of deuterium-labeled acrylamide.

A dose of 0.99 mg d(3)-acrylamide (d(3)-AA) (13.2 µg/kg body weight) was ingested by a healthy male volunteer. Urine samples were collected over a period of 46 h after the intake and analyzed for the hydrolysis product of glycidamide (GA), 2,3-dihydroxy-propionamide (OH-PA), a metabolite of the toxicologically relevant oxidative AA metabolism pathway; 5.4% of the administered d(3)-AA dose was eliminated as OH-PA within 46 h after ingestion. Therefore, OH-PA represents a major metabolite of the oxidative metabolism pathway. Elimination kinetics of OH-PA is similar to the oxidative metabolites N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-cysteine (GAMA) and N-acetyl-S-(1-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-cysteine (iso-GAMA). The major excretion of d(3)-OH-PA took place between 8 and 22 h with the highest urinary d(3)-OH-PA concentration (c (max)) of 69.3 µg/L urine, 18 h (t (max)) postdose. OH-PA (5.4%), together with the other known urinary metabolites of the oxidative pathway GAMA (4.6%) and iso-GAMA (0.8%), represents 10.8% of the total AA dose. The share of the oxidative pathway metabolites is much smaller than the share of the reductive pathway metabolite N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-cysteine (AAMA) that represents 51.7% of the ingested d(3)-AA dose. However, this new quantitative human data on OH-PA together with the previous data on the other oxidative pathway metabolites are of special importance when evaluating the carcinogenic potential of AA and when comparing human data with data from animal studies.