Draft Genome Sequence of an Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida Strain from the Canadian Pacific Coast Bearing a Variant of pRAS1.

The genome sequencing of Aeromonas salmonicida subspecies salmonicida strain 2004-072 revealed a plasmid bearing a region carrying antibiotic resistance genes very similar to the one found in the plasmid pRAS1, an IncU family plasmid. This new plasmid was named pRAS1b.

Systematic Analysis of the Stress-Induced Genomic Instability of Type Three Secretion System in Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida.

The type three secretion system (TTSS) locus of Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida, located on the plasmid pAsa5, is known to be lost when the bacterium is grown at temperatures of 25 °C. The loss of the locus is due to the recombination of the insertion sequences flanking the TTSS region. However, the mechanism involved in this recombination is still elusive. Here, we analyzed 22 A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida strains that had already lost their TTSS locus, and we systematically explored another 47 strains for their susceptibility to lose the same locus when grown at 25 °C. It appeared that strains from Europe were more prone to lose their TTSS locus compared to Canadian strains. More specifically, it was not possible to induce TTSS loss in Canadian strains that have AsaGEI2a, a genomic island, and prophage 3, or in Canadian strains without a genomic island. A comparative genomic approach revealed an almost perfect correlation between the presence of a cluster of genes, not yet characterized, and the susceptibility of various groups of strains to lose their locus. This cluster of genes encodes putative proteins with DNA binding capacity and phage proteins. This discovery creates new opportunities in the study of pAsa5 thermosensitivity.

Astroglial CB1 Receptors Determine Synaptic D-Serine Availability to Enable Recognition Memory.

Bidirectional communication between neurons and astrocytes shapes synaptic plasticity and behavior. D-serine is a necessary co-agonist of synaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), but the physiological factors regulating its impact on memory processes are scantly known. We show that astroglial CB1 receptors are key determinants of object recognition memory by determining the availability of D-serine at hippocampal synapses. Mutant mice lacking CB1 receptors from astroglial cells (GFAP-CB1-KO) displayed impaired object recognition memory and decreased in vivo and in vitro long-term potentiation (LTP) at CA3-CA1 hippocampal synapses. Activation of CB1 receptors increased intracellular astroglial Ca2+ levels and extracellular levels of D-serine in hippocampal slices. Accordingly, GFAP-CB1-KO displayed lower occupancy of the co-agonist binding site of synaptic hippocampal NMDARs. Finally, elevation of D-serine levels fully rescued LTP and memory impairments of GFAP-CB1-KO mice. These data reveal a novel mechanism of in vivo astroglial control of memory and synaptic plasticity via the D-serine-dependent control of NMDARs.

Cannabinoid-Induced Tetrad in Mice.

Cannabinoid-induced tetrad is a preclinical model commonly used to evaluate if a pharmacological compound is an agonist of the central type-1 cannabinoid (CB1) receptor in rodents. The tetrad is characterized by hypolocomotion, hypothermia, catalepsy, and analgesia, four phenotypes that are induced by acute administration of CB1 agonists exemplified by the prototypic cannabinoid delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). This unit describes a standard protocol in mice to induce tetrad phenotypes with THC as reference cannabinoid. We provide typical results obtained with this procedure showing a dose effect of THC in different mouse strains. The effect of the CB1 antagonist rimonabant is also shown. This tetrad protocol is well adapted to reveal new compounds acting on CB1 receptors in vivo. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Dissecting the cannabinergic control of behavior: The where matters.

The endocannabinoid system is the target of the main psychoactive component of the plant Cannabis sativa, the Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). This system is composed by the cannabinoid receptors, the endogenous ligands, and the enzymes involved in their metabolic processes, which works both centrally and peripherally to regulate a plethora of physiological functions. This review aims at explaining how the site-specific actions of the endocannabinoid system impact on memory and feeding behavior through the cannabinoid receptors 1 (CB1 R). Centrally, CB1 R is widely distributed in many brain regions, different cell types (e.g. neuronal or glial cells) and intracellular compartments (e.g. mitochondria). Interestingly, cellular and molecular effects are differentially mediated by CB1 R according to their cell-type localization (e.g. glutamatergic or GABAergic neurons). Thus, understanding the cellular and subcellular function of CB1 R will provide new insights and aid the design of new compounds in cannabinoid-based medicine. Also watch the Video Abstract.

Rising stars: modulation of brain functions by astroglial type-1 cannabinoid receptors.

The type-1-cannabinoid (CB1 ) receptor is amongst the most widely expressed G protein-coupled receptors in the brain. In few decades, CB1 receptors have been shown to regulate a large array of functions from brain cell development and survival to complex cognitive processes. Understanding the cellular mechanisms underlying these functions of CB1 is complex due to the heterogeneity of the brain cell types on which the receptor is expressed. Although the large majority of CB1 receptors act on neurons, early studies pointed to a direct control of CB1 receptors over astroglial functions including brain energy supply and neuroprotection. In line with the growing concept of the tripartite synapse highlighting astrocytes as direct players in synaptic plasticity, astroglial CB1 receptor signaling recently emerged as the mediator of several forms of synaptic plasticity associated to important cognitive functions. Here, we shortly review the current knowledge on CB1 receptor-mediated astroglial functions. This functional spectrum is large and most of the mechanisms by which CB1 receptors control astrocytes, as well as their consequences in vivo, are still unknown, requiring innovative approaches to improve this new cannabinoid research field.

Astroglial CB1 cannabinoid receptors regulate leptin signaling in mouse brain astrocytes.

Type-1 cannabinoid (CB1) and leptin (ObR) receptors regulate metabolic and astroglial functions, but the potential links between the two systems in astrocytes were not investigated so far. Genetic and pharmacological manipulations of CB1 receptor expression and activity in cultured cortical and hypothalamic astrocytes demonstrated that cannabinoid signaling controls the levels of ObR expression. Lack of CB1 receptors also markedly impaired leptin-mediated activation of signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 and 5 (STAT3 and STAT5) in astrocytes. In particular, CB1 deletion determined a basal overactivation of STAT5, thereby leading to the downregulation of ObR expression, and leptin failed to regulate STAT5-dependent glycogen storage in the absence of CB1 receptors. These results show that CB1 receptors directly interfere with leptin signaling and its ability to regulate glycogen storage, thereby representing a novel mechanism linking endocannabinoid and leptin signaling in the regulation of brain energy storage and neuronal functions.

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system mediates hypophagic and anxiety-like effects of CB1 receptor blockade.

Complex interactions between periphery and the brain regulate food intake in mammals. Cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptor antagonists are potent hypophagic agents, but the sites where this acute action is exerted and the underlying mechanisms are not fully elucidated. To dissect the mechanisms underlying the hypophagic effect of CB1 receptor blockade, we combined the acute injection of the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant with the use of conditional CB1-knockout mice, as well as with pharmacological modulation of different central and peripheral circuits. Fasting/refeeding experiments revealed that CB1 receptor signaling in many specific brain neurons is dispensable for the acute hypophagic effects of rimonabant. CB1 receptor antagonist-induced hypophagia was fully abolished by peripheral blockade of ß-adrenergic transmission, suggesting that this effect is mediated by increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Consistently, we found that rimonabant increases gastrointestinal metabolism via increased peripheral ß-adrenergic receptor signaling in peripheral organs, including the gastrointestinal tract. Blockade of both visceral afferents and glutamatergic transmission in the nucleus tractus solitarii abolished rimonabant-induced hypophagia. Importantly, these mechanisms were specifically triggered by lipid-deprivation, revealing a nutrient-specific component acutely regulated by CB1 receptor blockade. Finally, peripheral blockade of sympathetic neurotransmission also blunted central effects of CB1 receptor blockade, such as fear responses and anxiety-like behaviors. These data demonstrate that, independently of their site of origin, important effects of CB1 receptor blockade are expressed via activation of peripheral sympathetic activity. Thus, CB1 receptors modulate bidirectional circuits between the periphery and the brain to regulate feeding and other behaviors.

Bimodal control of fear-coping strategies by CB1 cannabinoid receptors.

To maximize their chances of survival, animals need to rapidly and efficiently respond to aversive situations. These responses can be classified as active or passive and depend on the specific nature of threats, but also on individual fear coping styles. In this study, we show that the control of excitatory and inhibitory brain neurons by type-1 cannabinoid (CB1) receptors is a key determinant of fear coping strategies in mice. In classical fear conditioning, a switch between initially predominant passive fear responses (freezing) and active behaviors (escape attempts and risk assessment) develops over time. Constitutive genetic deletion of CB1 receptors in CB1⁻/⁻ mice disrupted this pattern by favoring passive responses. This phenotype can be ascribed to endocannabinoid control of excitatory neurons, because it was reproduced in conditional mutant mice lacking CB1 receptors from cortical glutamatergic neurons. CB1 receptor deletion from GABAergic brain neurons led to the opposite phenotype, characterized by the predominance of active coping. The CB1 receptor agonist Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol exerted a biphasic control of fear coping strategies, with lower and higher doses favoring active and passive responses, respectively. Finally, viral re-expression of CB1 receptors in the amygdala of CB1⁻/⁻ mice restored the normal switch between the two coping strategies. These data strongly suggest that CB1 receptor signaling bimodally controls the spontaneous adoption of active or passive coping strategies in individuals. This primary function of the endocannabinoid system in shaping individual behavioral traits should be considered when studying the mechanisms of physiological and pathological fear.

Acute cannabinoids impair working memory through astroglial CB1 receptor modulation of hippocampal LTD.

Impairment of working memory is one of the most important deleterious effects of marijuana intoxication in humans, but its underlying mechanisms are presently unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the impairment of spatial working memory (SWM) and in vivo long-term depression (LTD) of synaptic strength at hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapses, induced by an acute exposure of exogenous cannabinoids, is fully abolished in conditional mutant mice lacking type-1 cannabinoid receptors (CB(1)R) in brain astroglial cells but is conserved in mice lacking CB(1)R in glutamatergic or GABAergic neurons. Blockade of neuronal glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) and of synaptic trafficking of glutamate α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole propionic acid receptors (AMPAR) also abolishes cannabinoid effects on SWM and LTD induction and expression. We conclude that the impairment of working memory by marijuana and cannabinoids is due to the activation of astroglial CB(1)R and is associated with astroglia-dependent hippocampal LTD in vivo.

Mitochondrial CB1 receptors regulate neuronal energy metabolism.

The mammalian brain is one of the organs with the highest energy demands, and mitochondria are key determinants of its functions. Here we show that the type-1 cannabinoid receptor (CB(1)) is present at the membranes of mouse neuronal mitochondria (mtCB(1)), where it directly controls cellular respiration and energy production. Through activation of mtCB(1) receptors, exogenous cannabinoids and in situ endocannabinoids decreased cyclic AMP concentration, protein kinase A activity, complex I enzymatic activity and respiration in neuronal mitochondria. In addition, intracellular CB(1) receptors and mitochondrial mechanisms contributed to endocannabinoid-dependent depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition in the hippocampus. Thus, mtCB(1) receptors directly modulate neuronal energy metabolism, revealing a new mechanism of action of G protein-coupled receptor signaling in the brain.

Chronic treatment with Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol impairs spatial memory and reduces zif268 expression in the mouse forebrain.

Few studies have investigated the effects of chronic cannabinoid exposure on memory performance and whether tolerance occurs to cannabinoid-induced memory impairment. Here, we studied the effects of repeated exposure to Delta-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC: 1 mg/kg) on spatial memory and zif268 expression in mice. One group of animals was not pretreated with THC, whereas another group was injected with 13 daily injections of THC before memory testing in the Morris water maze. Both groups were administered with THC throughout the memory-testing phase of the experiment. THC decreased spatial memory and reversal learning, even in animals that received the THC pretreatment and were tolerant to the locomotor suppressant effects of the drug. Zif268 immunoreactivity was reduced in the CA3 of the hippocampus and in the prefrontal cortex only in non-pretreated animals, indicating that although tolerance to the effects of THC on neuronal activity was evident, cannabinoid-induced memory impairment in these animals persisted even after 24 days of exposure. This study shows that after extended administration of THC, its spatial memory-impairing effects are resistant to tolerance.