The impact of critical thinking skills on student pharmacist GPA at a historically Black university.

INTRODUCTION: Limited information is available regarding whether malleable factors such as critical thinking skills are associated with academic performance among underrepresented minority pharmacy students. This study assessed the relationship between critical thinking skills and grade point average (GPA) among pharmacy students attending a Historically Black College. METHODS: A cross sectional study design was utilized to evaluate the association between student's GPA and critical thinking skills. Demographic data and GPA were abstracted from student records. The health sciences reasoning test with numeracy was administered to pharmacy students at Howard University during the 2017 to 2018 academic year. Critical thinking scores were classified as weak, moderate, or strong/superior. A one way analysis of variance was conducted to ascertain if the average GPA differed based on critical thinking skills category. A multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine whether student's critical thinking skill category was associated with the cumulative GPA after accounting for other factors. RESULTS: Among 217 students, the mean GPA among students with a weak critical thinking skills score (3.22 ± 0.40) was lower compared to students with a strong/superior score (3.39 ± 0.33) with a p-value of 0.029. After adjusting for other factors, a strong/superior critical thinking skills score was associated with a higher GPA (p-value = 0.024) in comparison to weak critical thinking skills. CONCLUSION: Stronger critical thinking skills scores are associated with better academic performance among underrepresented minority pharmacy students.

A Six-Semester Integrated Pharmacy Practice Course Based on Entrustable Professional Activities.

Objective. To design and assess the outcomes of a longitudinal, integrated pharmacy course.Methods. A one-credit course, Applications of Pharmacy Practice, was built into a revised curriculum. The course was offered during the first six semesters of the Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum and met once every three weeks for a total of five sessions per semester. Each session integrated curricular material from all courses taught during a given semester into an individual, case-based assessment and a team activity. Team activities were evaluated using rubrics developed based on the Core Entrustable Professional Activities for New Pharmacy Graduates.Results. First-year students were automatically enrolled in the inaugural offerings of the course in fall 2018 and spring 2019, and the majority of students achieved final course grades of 70% to 89% for each semester. Students reported that the course helped them to develop critical-thinking skills and to keep up with semester material. Although the majority of students believed the addition of the course to the curriculum was beneficial, some felt the expectation for them to keep up with all course material was excessive.Conclusion. The addition of a longitudinal integrated course, Applications of Pharmacy Practice, appeared to benefit students, helping them integrate material from all of their courses during the semester. This integration of clinical, administrative, and pharmaceutical sciences material reduced compartmentalization of knowledge. Future studies should investigate the impact of this course on student success and performance on standardized assessments.

An Ethics-based Approach to Global Health Research Part 2: Strategies for Overcoming Logistic and Implementation Challenges.

With the growth of global pharmacy partnerships and collaborative research, particularly between high-income countries and low- or middle-income countries, it is necessary to establish best practices for fair and ethical collaboration and research. There is a gap in the pharmacy literature in this regard. Through this commentary, authors will present a pathway for future global health researchers including generating ideas based on mutual needs of the partnership and the community; exploring the importance of regulations including the need to conduct research and partnership projects within the confines of each participant's professional scope of practice, expertise, and licensure; describing the need to develop agreements and the components that should be included in such an agreement; discussing ethical guidelines for research planning, obtaining ethical approval, and planning for adverse events; and illustrating ethical considerations for research implementation with considerations around consent, data collection, linking patients to care after the completion of the study, and dissemination. Global examples, with a pharmacy-specific approach where applicable, within each section highlight the importance of discussion and action around ethics and equity when pursuing collaborative research, recognizing that many of these situations involve difficult decisions.

An Ethics-based Approach to Research in Global Health: A Call to Action for Pharmacists.

As opportunities and interests in international partnerships and research continue to grow in pharmacy, so, too, does the likelihood of encountering ethical challenges. We posit that the chance of encountering an ethical challenge in global health is almost inevitable. This commentary serves as an introduction to a series of four papers highlighting ethical issues in global health research for pharmacists. The authors draw on core ethical principles to guide collaborative global research in working to advance the health of people and populations worldwide.

Implementing an Online Longitudinal Leadership Development Program Using a Leadership-Specific Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Tool.

As the roles of a pharmacist continue to evolve, leadership is an imperative skill for pharmacists to advance in their profession. To advance leadership behaviors, a number of tools, programs, and services have been developed worldwide to encourage the use of these behaviors in practice. A brief summary of different leadership opportunities around the globe are provided. A continuing professional development process and tool for developing and mentoring leaders that are ready to take the next step in their growth journey is introduced. This tool can be used in a live or online setting and is amenable to a longitudinal environment for leadership development and mentoring. A detailed process for implementing an online leadership development program and opportunities for future development are also described. While leadership skills can be developed in many ways, it is still unclear which methods and tools are the most effective in training pharmacists to maximize their leadership abilities. Additional research on effectiveness and impact of tools and processes for development are needed. Individuals and organizations are encouraged to consider implementing easily accessible leadership development and mentoring programs to advance the leadership skills of interested individuals.

An analysis of hospital pharmacy practice in six countries of sub-Saharan Africa based on the International Pharmaceutical Federation Basel Statements on the future of hospital pharmacy.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to update the self-assessment tool and to evaluate current hospital pharmacy practices in six sub-Saharan African countries. METHODS: Questions in the validated survey were edited if the revised Basel Statement changed intent. A total of 13 updates were made. The survey was administered via e-mail to pharmacy personnel in any hospital centre in Ghana (258 total hospitals), Nigeria (17 038 total hospitals), Malawi (499 total hospitals), Uganda (155 total hospitals), Zambia (98 total hospitals) and Zimbabwe (1389 total hospitals). Snowball sampling increased reach of the survey across each country. KEY FINDINGS: Responses were received from all six countries, with nine respondents from Ghana, 15 from Nigeria, two from Malawi, five from Uganda, nine from Zambia and four from Zimbabawe. Uganda had the highest achievement rates for tier one and tier three constructs, and Ghana had the highest achievement rate for tier two constructs. Malawi showed the lowest achievement rates in all three tiers. The six countries achieved an average of 82 per cent (SD = 24) of tier one constructs. Three tier one constructs were achieved less than 25 per cent of the time. CONCLUSION: Multiple tier one (minimum standards in hospital pharmacy practice) constructs were achieved greater than 90% of the time, possibly reflecting efforts made towards hospital pharmacy practice advancement in select countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, all countries achieved a majority of tier one overarching constructs. Despite these achievements, there are still many areas for growth, including select tier one constructs with low achievement rates.

Cultural Sensitivity and Global Pharmacy Engagement in Asia: India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Vietnam.

Schools and colleges of pharmacy in the United States increasingly interact with those in Asian countries for various purposes such as education and research. For both those visiting and those hosting, it is important to understand and respect the culture of the other's country to enrich these interactions. This paper, the second of two manuscripts on Asian countries, focuses on India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Vietnam. For each country, the following information is provided: general introduction, health care system, pharmacy practice, and pharmacy education, stereotypes and misconceptions, recommendations for US-based health care professionals, faculty members, and students who visit these Asian countries, and recommendations for them to host visitors from these Asian countries. The aim of this paper is to assist US health care professionals, faculty members, and students in initiating and promoting a culturally sensitive engagement.

Cultural Sensitivity and Global Pharmacy Engagement in the United States.

Objective. To provide a resource for schools and colleges of pharmacy in different regions of the world that are considering sending their students and faculty members to the United States for training. Methods. A literature review (2000-2018) was conducted that involved database and Internet searches using specific keywords and terms. Information was also solicited from authors in different regions of the United States who have hosted international students and faculty members. Recommendations for pharmacists and other health care practitioners on culturally sensitive engagement were formulated. Results. Global engagement between schools and colleges of pharmacy from different regions of the world and the United States is increasing. In addition to various cultural aspects, general information about the US health care system, pharmacy education programs, and pharmacy practice were found to be available to individuals who are charged with organizing and facilitating these exchanges. Common stereotypes and misconceptions about the United States were also identified. Conclusion. For international learners to have an enriching and fruitful engagement while in the United States, an understanding of American culture in general as well as the unique cultural aspects of different regions of the country as provided in this paper is critical.

Cultural Sensitivity and Global Pharmacy Engagement in Asia: China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.

Interest in global engagement among schools and colleges of pharmacy in the United States and Asian countries is growing. To develop fruitful relationships and engage in mutually enriching experiences, the cultural aspects of these countries need to be understood and respected. The aim of this paper is to facilitate culturally sensitive interactions between practitioners, faculty members, and students in the United States and those in Asian countries when they engage in health care practice and/or education. This paper introduces general information about China (including Macau and Hong Kong), Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Unique characteristics of the health care system and pharmacy education are described for each country. Stereotypes and misconceptions are discussed. Recommendations are included for initiating interactions and developing learning programs and scholarly collaborations while promoting culturally sensitive engagement. These recommendations are provided for US scholars, health care professionals, and students traveling to these countries as well as for those hosting visitors from these countries in the United States.

The FIP Nanjing Statements: Shaping global pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences education.

The quality assurance of pharmacy education is a global goal and indicator of transformative pharmacy workforce development. FIP has published a number of tools, guidelines and resources to support individuals, institutions, nations and regions advance pharmacy education - especially as the state of pharmacy education varies widely in countries around the world. The Nanjing Statements offer a potential additional tool aimed primarily at institutions to evaluate, monitor and advance their educational standards. The upcoming assessment tool being developed by FIP in partnership with Howard University will facilitate its utilization by educators and institutions worldwide and provides a global, practical mechanism of advancing the education of the pharmacy workforce worldwide.

Layered learning pharmacy practice model in Ethiopia.

PURPOSE: Ethiopia is home to a growing population of more than 100 million people. Healthcare in the region functions with a shortage of oncologists. Pharmacists as well as other healthcare providers can assist with expanding patient access to cancer care. A pilot project was proposed to provide education, determine areas to expand pharmacy services in oncology, and recommend interventions at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital and Addis Ababa University. METHODS: A layered learning practice model comprising of a clinical pharmacist, a post-graduate year two oncology pharmacy resident, and two fourth-year student pharmacists was constructed for the experience. Through collaboration with the College of Pharmacy at Addis Ababa University, an international experience was developed to provide education and advance pharmacy practice at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital. RESULTS: Based on findings from a needs assessment, the participants collaborated with key stakeholders to develop practices and procedures for the implementation of high-dose methotrexate and for comprehensive chemotherapy order review. In addition, 17 didactic lectures were provided to nine students enrolled in the Master of Pharmacy in Pharmacy Practice at the College of Pharmacy at Addis Ababa University. CONCLUSION: This experience provided educational and clinical impact using a layered learning practice model, consisting of a clinical pharmacist, pharmacy resident, and pharmacy students in an international setting. There is significant potential for clinical pharmacy to positively impact patient care in the oncology setting in Ethiopia. Future initiatives for advancement include the safe handling of hazardous agents, additional therapeutic drug monitoring, and outpatient oncology pharmacist practice.

Knowledge, attitudes and practice of final-year student pharmacists in public health in Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe: an exploratory survey.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the knowledge, attitudes and practice of final-year student pharmacists about public health. METHODS: Knowledge, attitudes and practice of all final-year student pharmacists (N = 158) in Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe were assessed through a quantitative 12-item survey. The survey assessed personal interest and attitude towards public health activities, self-assessed ability to perform basic public health activities, perspectives towards current pharmacist practices within public health activities in their country, and student involvement in public health activities during pharmacy school. KEY FINDINGS: Eighty-two per cent of students responded to the survey (n = 129). The majority (95%) of all final-year student pharmacists are interested in contributing to public health activities in both health promotion and disease prevention and feel, as pharmacists, they have the responsibility to do so. Additionally, the majority of students would like more education during pharmacy school on health promotion (93%) and disease prevention (89%). Despite their interest, low numbers of student pharmacists feel that pharmacists are currently utilised in disease prevention (35%) and health promotion (42%). CONCLUSION: Final-year student pharmacists in Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe express strong interest in public health education and involvement in public health activities. This interest and enthusiasm can serve as evidence for advancing public health education in the pharmacy curricula and for developing pharmacist opportunities in public health efforts that match the needs of the country.

Addressing the global need for public health clinical pharmacists through student pharmacist education: a focus on developing nations.

It is time for pharmacists to begin advancing their roles in public health and play a more integral part in public health initiatives. Within developed nations, the profession has demonstrated its value in advancing preventive care; however, the same cannot be said for pharmacists worldwide. Emphasis on training public health pharmacists should also be on developing nations, where the need for preventive care is highly unmet. To ensure all graduating pharmacists are prepared to engage in public health activities, education in this field must be provided during their main years of pharmacy school. In conclusion, public health education should be incorporated into pharmacy curriculae within developing nations so all pharmacy graduates are prepared to engage in public health activities.

Pharmacy staff opinions regarding diabetic retinopathy screenings in the community setting: findings from a brief survey.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic retinopathy is a retinal vascular disorder that affects more than 4.1 million people in the United States. New methods of detecting and ensuring adequate follow-up of this life-altering disease are vital to improving patient outcomes. Wills Eye Hospital and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are conducting a collaborative study to initiate a novel diabetic retinopathy screening in the community setting. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility of a more widespread, large-scale implementation of this novel model of care for diabetic retinopathy screening in the community setting. METHODS: A simple, self-administered survey was distributed to pharmacists, pharmacy technicians, student pharmacists, and Wills Eye Hospital interns. The survey consisted of open-ended questions and responders were given 1 week to respond. A total of 22 surveys were distributed and 16 were completed. The responses were culled and analyzed to assess the feasibility of implementing this novel screening model in the pharmacy. RESULTS: The response rate to this pilot survey was 72%. The majority of the responding pharmacy staff members indicated that diabetic retinopathy screening in community pharmacies would greatly benefit patients and could improve patient care. However, they also noted barriers to implementing the screening, such as concerns about the cost of carrying out the screenings, the cost of the equipment needed to be purchased, and the lack of time and shortage of pharmacy staff. CONCLUSION: The potential exists for pharmacists to positively influence diabetes care by implementing retinopathy care through the early detection of the disease and reinforcement of the need for follow-up; however, real-world barriers must be addressed before widespread adoption of such a novel model of care becomes feasible.