Do farming conditions influence brominated flame retardant levels in pig and poultry products?

Brominated flame retardants (BFR) are primarily used as flame retardant additives in insulating materials. These lipophilic compounds can bioaccumulate in animal tissues, leading to human exposure via food ingestion. Although their concentration in food is not yet regulated, several of these products are recognised as persistent organic pollutants; they are thought to act as endocrine disruptors. The present study aimed to characterise the occurrence of two families of BFRs (hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)) in hen eggs and broiler or pig meat in relation to their rearing environments. Epidemiological studies were carried out on 60 hen egg farms (34 without an open-air range, 26 free-range), 57 broiler farms (27 without an open-air range, 30 free-range) and 42 pig farms without an open-air range in France from 2013 to 2015. For each farm, composite samples from either 12 eggs, five broiler pectoral muscles or three pig tenderloins were obtained. Eight PBDE congeners and three HBCDD stereoisomers were quantified in product fat using gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry, or high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. The frequencies of PBDE detection were 28% for eggs (median concentration 0.278 ng/g fat), 72% for broiler muscle (0.392 ng/g fat) and 49% for pig muscle (0.403 ng/g fat). At least one HBCDD stereoisomer was detected in 17% of eggs (0.526 ng/g fat), 46% of broiler muscle (0.799 ng/g fat) and 36% of pig muscle (0.616 ng/g fat). Results were similar in concentration to those obtained in French surveillance surveys from 2012 to 2016. Nevertheless, the contamination of free-range eggs and broilers was found to be more frequent than that of conventional ones, suggesting that access to an open-air range could be an additional source of exposure to BFRs for animals. However, the concentration of BFRs in all products remained generally very low. No direct relationship could be established between the occurrence of BFRs in eggs and meat and the characteristics of farm buildings (age, building materials). The potential presence of BFRs in insulating materials is not likely to constitute a significant source of animal exposure as long as the animals do not have direct access to these materials.

Exposure to inhalable dust of workers shackling birds frequently exceeds occupational exposure level in abattoirs in Western France.

1. The objectives of this study were to measure the exposure of workers to dust when shackling poultry in abattoirs, and to identify the most effective measures to prevent human exposure to dust. The relationship between respiratory health of workers and their occupational exposure to dust was assessed. 2. Exposure to dust (aerial particles inhaled through the nose and mouth) exceeded the occupational exposure limit (maximum 10 mg/m3 over 8 h) in 65 out of 109 workers from 27 abattoirs, in the context of high levels of ambient aerial dust in small, closed shackling cubicles. Ceiling air ducts for supply of air reduced worker exposure to dust in these buildings. 3. Two-thirds of the 86 workers interviewed reported work-related respiratory symptoms. The self-reported risk of suffering from coughing tended to be associated with the highest exposure to inhalable dust and respiratory dust (aerial particles penetrating up to alveoli) observed in the study. 4. The present study demonstrates that workers may be exposed to considerable amounts of dust when shackling birds before stunning.

Emergence and multiple reassortments of French 2015-2016 highly pathogenic H5 avian influenza viruses.

From November 2015 to August 2016, 81 outbreaks of highly pathogenic (HP) H5 avian influenza virus were detected in poultry farms from South-Western France. These viruses were mainly detected in farms raising waterfowl, but also in chicken or guinea fowl flocks, and did not induce severe signs in waterfowl although they did meet the HP criteria. Three different types of neuraminidases (N1, N2 and N9) were associated with the HP H5 gene. Full genomes sequences of 24 H5HP and 6 LP viruses that circulated in the same period were obtained by next generation sequencing, from direct field samples or after virus isolation in SPF embryonated eggs. Phylogenetic analyses of the eight viral segments confirmed that they were all related to the avian Eurasian lineage. In addition, analyses of the "Time of the Most Recent Common Ancestor" showed that the common ancestor of the H5HP sequences from South-Western France could date back to early 2014 (±1 year). This pre-dated the first detection of H5 HP in poultry farms and was consistent with a silent circulation of these viruses for several months. Finally, the phylogenetic study of the different segments showed that several phylogenetic groups could be established. Twelve genotypes of H5HP were detected implying that at least eleven reassortment events did occur after the H5HP cleavage site emerged. This indicates that a large number of co-infections with both highly pathogenic H5 and other avian influenza viruses must have occurred, a finding that lends further support to prolonged silent circulation.

A bovine botulism outbreak associated with a suspected cross-contamination from a poultry farm.

In October 2014, an outbreak of botulism type D/C occurred on two cattle farms in close proximity. A poultry farm located nearby with no history of botulism had transferred poultry manure to both bovine farms before the beginning of the outbreak. Given this context, epidemiological investigation was conducted to determine if the poultry farm was a reservoir of C. botulinum type D/C and to identify the source of contamination on the cattle farms. Environmental samples were collected at three houses on the poultry farm (boot swabs from the surroundings, swabs from the ventilation system, boot swabs from the poultry litter and darkling beetles samples), and on the two cattle farms (silage samples, boot swabs from the cattle stalls, boot swabs from the cattle pasture and poultry manure samples). These samples were analyzed using real-time PCR after an enrichment step to detect C. botulinum type D/C. On the poultry farm, three boot swabs from the surroundings, two swabs from the ventilation system, one boot swab from the litter and one sample of darkling beetles were detected positive. On one cattle farm, C. botulinum type D/C was identified in a sample of silage made from grass grown on a field on which the poultry manure had previously been stored and in a boot swab from a pasture. On the other cattle farm, C. botulinum type D/C was detected in a sample of poultry manure stored on the cattle farm and in a boot swab from a pasture. This investigation shows that the healthy poultry farm might have been the reservoir of C. botulinum type D/C and that cross-contamination between poultry and cattle likely occurred, resulting in the botulism outbreak on the two cattle farms.

Rates of and reasons for condemnation of poultry carcases: harmonised methodology at the slaughterhouse.

European hygiene regulations require the condemnation of any unsafe food. However, there is little information identifying and quantifying condemnation of poultry carcases at slaughterhouses. We present an in-depth view of rates of and reasons for the condemnation of broiler, turkey, meat and force-feeding duck, guinea fowl carcases in France. The experiment was conducted in 10 slaughterhouses. For one year, all condemnations were recorded on a standard form following a national reference system. The rates of and reasons for condemnation, as well as factors influencing variation were investigated. The global condemnation rates were 1.04 per cent for broilers, 1.85 per cent for turkeys, 1.23 per cent for meat ducks, 1.42 per cent for force-feeding ducks and 1.20 per cent for guinea fowl. Condemnation rates depended on several factors including slaughterhouse, animal gender and season. Reasons for condemnation varied with species, for example, the three main reasons for broilers were cachexia (41.8 per cent of condemned batches), generalised congestion (29.3 per cent) and non-purulent cutaneous lesions (14.2 per cent) versus conformation abnormalities (58.6 per cent), cachexia (14.61 per cent) and ascites (14.56 per cent) for meat ducks. While the condemnation rates can be considered low for all species, the difference between the rates of and reasons for condemnation highlights the need to lead species-specific epidemiological studies to improve the sanitary situation of poultry production.

Investigation of a type C/D botulism outbreak in free-range laying hens in France.

In 2014, a botulism outbreak in a flock of laying hens was investigated in France. In the flock of 5020 hens, clinical signs of botulism occurred at 46 weeks of age. A type C/D botulism outbreak was confirmed using the mouse lethality assay for detection of botulinum toxin in serum and a real-time PCR test to detect Clostridium botulinum in intestinal contents. The disease lasted one week with a mortality rate of 2.6% without recurrence. Botulism in laying hens has rarely been reported. Five monthly visits were made to the farm between December 2014 and May 2015 for a longitudinal study of the persistence of C. botulinum in the poultry house after the outbreak, and to assess egg contamination by C. botulinum. Several samples were collected on each visit: in the house (from the ventilation circuit, the egg circuit, water and feed, droppings) and the surrounding area. Thirty clean and 30 dirty eggs were also swabbed at each visit. In addition, 12 dirty and 12 clean eggs were collected to analyse eggshell and egg content. The samples were analysed using real-time PCR to detect type C/D C. botulinum. The bacterium was still detected in the house more than 5 months after the outbreak, mostly on the walls and in the egg circuit. Regarding egg contamination, the bacteria were detected only on the shell but not in the content of the eggs. Control measures should therefore be implemented throughout the egg production period to avoid dissemination of the bacteria, particularly during egg collection.

Occurrence of C. botulinum in healthy cattle and their environment following poultry botulism outbreaks in mixed farms.

Ten cattle farms located in an area with a recent history of poultry botulism outbreaks were investigated to evaluate the occurrence of toxigenic C. botulinum in healthy cattle. Environmental samples in the 10 cattle farms and bovine fecal contents in farms with a confirmed environmental contamination were collected. Detection of C. botulinum toxin genes C, D, C/D, D/C and E was performed using real-time PCR. 4.9% (7/143) of the environmental samples collected in the 10 investigated cattle farms were positive for C. botulinum type C/D. Theses samples (boot-swabs in stalls and on pasture and water of a stream) were collected in 3 different farms. One cow dung sample and 3 out of 64 fecal contents samples collected in a single farm were also positive for C. botulinum type C/D. This study demonstrates that cattle are probably indirectly contaminated via poultry botulism in the area and that they can be intermittent carrier of C. botulinum type C/D after poultry botulism outbreaks in mixed farms.

Investigation of Clostridium botulinum in commercial poultry farms in France between 2011 and 2013.

Between 2011 and 2013, 17 poultry botulism outbreaks were investigated in France. All cases were associated with Clostridium botulinum type C-D. Presence of C. botulinum was studied in seven areas: poultry house, changing room, ventilation system, surroundings, animal reservoirs, water, and feed. Swabs, litter, soil, darkling beetles, rodents and wild bird droppings, feed and water samples were collected. The presence of C. botulinum type C-D in the environment of affected flocks was detected in 39.5% of the 185 samples analysed by real-time polymerase chain reaction. C. botulinum type C-D was reported in each area. Four areas were more frequently contaminated, being found positive in more than one-half of farms: darkling beetles (9/11), poultry house (14/17), water (13/16) and surroundings (11/16). After cleaning and disinfection, the ventilation system and/or the soil (in the houses and the surroundings) returned positive results in four out of eight poultry farms. Consequently, darkling beetles, the drinking water, the ventilation system and the soil in the surroundings and the houses were identified as the main critical contaminated areas to consider in poultry farms to prevent recurrence of botulism outbreaks.

Prevalence of and risk factors for Campylobacter colonisation in broiler flocks at the end of the rearing period in France.

1. A study was conducted to estimate the prevalence and quantification by species of Campylobacter infection in broiler flocks at the end of the rearing period and to identify associated risk factors. 2. A questionnaire about the rearing period was completed and caecal samples were collected from 121 broiler flocks in Brittany, France, during 2008. 3. Campylobacter was isolated in 87 out of 121 flocks--a prevalence of 71.9% (95% CI, 63.7-80.1%), including 40.5% of Campylobacter jejuni and 29.8% of Campylobacter coli. 4. The average concentration, in positive flocks, was 7.96 log10 cfu/g and ranged from 3.15 to 10.32 log10 cfu/g. 5. The average concentration by species was: 7.57 log10 cfu/g for C. jejuni and 8.44 log10 cfu/g for C. coli. 6. There was a seasonal effect, with increased risk of Campylobacter colonisation in June, July and August (odds ratio (OR) = 9.59, 95% CI 1.15-79.75). 7. The other factors, associated with lower risk of Campylobacter colonisation, were the acidification of drinking water (OR = 0.33, 95% CI 0.13-0.86), antibiotic treatment at the beginning of the rearing period (OR = 0.20, 95% CI 0.07-0.55) and rodent control around the house (OR = 0.18, 95% CI 0.03-0.95). 8. The results show that hygiene practices and biosecurity measures could lead to a reduction in Campylobacter colonisation.

Aerial dust concentration in cage-housed, floor-housed, and aviary facilities for laying hens.

Agricultural workers, and pig and poultry farmers in particular, are exposed to airborne contaminants including organic dusts, gases, fungi, bacteria, and endotoxins that can have adverse effects on their respiratory health. To date, data comparing the aerial dust concentrations in the different hen-housing systems used by commercial poultry farmers are scarce. An epidemiological study was conducted in commercial housing facilities for laying hens, half of which were housed in a cage system without litter and the remaining half on an on-floor system with litter. The aims were to measure and compare the ambient dust concentrations in the different housing systems and identify any factors in building design and hen management that could influence the dust burden. An average concentration of respirable ambient dusts (≤4 µm) of 0.37 mg/m(3) (95% CI [0.31-0.42]) was measured in the on-floor system, and this value was higher than average values in the cage system {0.13 mg/m(3) (95% CI [0.11-0.14]) P = 0.01}. The highest dust concentration was observed in aviaries (1.19 mg/m(3) [0.80-1.59]). The type of housing and the presence of litter therefore had a preponderant effect on air quality. Dust concentrations in caged buildings were influenced by cage design and rearing practices, whereas litter management, the age of hens, and temperature control were determining factors for dust levels in on-floor houses. This study underlines the need for information and preventive measures to reduce the exposure of poultry workers to bioaerosols, particularly in alternative systems where high levels of ambient dust were observed.

Bayesian network as an aid for Food Chain Information use for meat inspection.

Current ante mortem inspection involves a check of relevant Food Chain Information (FCI) transmitted by the farmer to the slaughterhouse on a regulatory FCI document. Since 2000, a farm sanitary form with FCI data has been used for all consignments of broiler chickens in France. However, the FCI needs to be standardized for the collection and interpretation of data. A study was conducted to develop an expert system, undertaken to elaborate on a simple decision support system capable of predicting whether the flocks will present a high condemnation risk, based on FCI. For this, 'optimal' (i.e. on-farm survey data) and 'worthy' (i.e. farmers' declaration on existing farm sanitary form) data quality conditions were considered to estimate the lower and upper reference bounds of the confidence that the decision-makers could have in such a tool. Chicken broiler flocks (404) were randomly selected in 15 slaughterhouses located in Western France in 2005. Condemnation proportion and farm sanitary form were collected for each selected flock. Information about health history and technical performances were also specifically collected on farm. Condemnation risk category was modelled from the on-farm collected information, using a Bayesian network and assuming this represented the optimal data quality conditions. Corresponding information declared by the farmer on the existing farm sanitary form was secondly used in the network to evaluate the impact of the uncertainty of such information on the condemnation classification obtained with the expert system. The learnt Bayesian network had 16 explanatory variables pertaining to technical characteristics and sanitary features of the flock. Using a threshold of 1% of condemned carcases to define high risk, the network sensitivity and specificity were 55% and 93%, respectively, corresponding to positive and negative predictive values of 70% and 87%. When declared existing information was used in the network, the sensitivity and specificity were 16% and 96%, respectively, corresponding to positive and negative predictive values of 57% and 80%. Results suggested that the predictive network developed may be insufficient for correctly classifying chicken flocks for targeting of management procedures, and in its current form, the expert system may be unlikely to be implemented in the field. However, it could help to improve the standardization of both form design and FCI interpretation at a national level.

Histologically-validated footpad dermatitis scoring system for use in chicken processing plants.

1. Footpad dermatitis (FPD) is a recognised welfare problem in broiler chickens. Broiler feet (n = 54) were examined macroscopically and microscopically to determine a reliable correspondence between macroscopic and histological features, and to devise a scoring system that was relevant to bird welfare and easy to use at processing plants. 2. Three types of footpad lesion were defined based on their severity. Type I were mild lesions, visually characterised by scale enlargement and erythema, and histologically by hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis of the epidermis, superficial dermal congestion and oedema. Type II were moderate, superficial lesions, visually characterised by hypertrophic and hyperkeratotic scales covered with yellowish to brownish exudate, and histologically by a prominent pustular and crust-forming dermatitis. Type III lesions were the most pronounced, visually characterised by a thick dark adherent crust, and histologically by extensive ulceration. 3. On the basis of the severity and extent of these three types of lesions, a 5-point scale was devised, i.e. no or type I lesion (score 1), type II lesion (<50% or >50% of footpad, scores 2 and 3 respectively) and type III lesion (<50% or >50% of footpad, scores 4 and 5 respectively). 4. The scoring system has the advantage of making sense in terms of welfare compared with previous schemes. Furthermore, it is histologically validated and easy to use for the routine assessment of broiler welfare in processing plants.

Multiblock modelling to assess the overall risk factors for a composite outcome.

Research in epidemiology may be concerned with assessing risk factors for complex health issues described by several variables. Moreover, epidemiological data are usually organized in several blocks of variables, consisting of a block of variables to be explained and a large number of explanatory variables organized in meaningful blocks. Usual statistical procedures such as generalized linear models do not allow the explanation of a multivariate outcome, such as a complex disease described by several variables, with a single model. Moreover, it is not easy to take account of the organization of explanatory variables into blocks. Here we propose an innovative method in the multiblock modelling framework, called multiblock redundancy analysis, which is designed to handle most specificities of complex epidemiological data. Overall indices and graphical displays associated with different interpretation levels are proposed. The interest and relevance of multiblock redundancy analysis is illustrated using a dataset pertaining to veterinary epidemiology.

Endotoxin concentration in poultry houses for laying hens kept in cages or in alternative housing systems.

Endotoxins as components of organic dust may have adverse effects on the respiratory health of workers in poultry buildings. The move towards more welfare-friendly housing systems for layers may increase worker exposure to air contaminants due to the use of litter. The endotoxin concentrations in the inhalable fraction of airborne dust (below 100 µm) from cage and alternative system houses (on-floor, free range and aviaries) were compared under both experimental and commercial conditions. The endotoxin concentration was higher in experimental aviaries (median: 565 EU/m³, range: 362-1491 EU/m³) than in cage housing (98 EU/m³ (51-470)). In field conditions, the endotoxin concentration in the air of 13 alternative houses was higher (35 to 3156 EU/m³) than in cage system buildings (n = 8, 78-576 EU/m³). It was correlated to the respirable dust concentration (fraction below 5 µm) and to the temperature inside the hen house but no seasonal variation was observed. The present study emphasises that considerable worker exposure to endotoxins may occur in laying houses, especially in alternative systems.

Factors associated with mortality of broilers during transport to slaughterhouse.

In recent years, broiler mortality during transport to the slaughterhouse has become a cause for concern because of animal welfare considerations and associated economic losses. A descriptive and analytical epidemiological study was carried out to estimate the extent of DoA in poultry broiler production in the main producing regions of France and to determine factors influencing the DoA rate. Data regarding animal characteristics and rearing, catching, transport and lairage conditions were collected on farm and at the slaughterhouse for 404 chicken broiler flocks processed during 2005. The average DoA rate was 0.18% (from 0% to 1.4%). Variables found to be associated (P < 0.05) with the DoA rate in a multivariable negative binomial model were flock cumulative mortality on farm, the catching system (mechanical being more at risk than manual), the density in crates (more space allowance being associated with less mortality) and climatic conditions (rain and wind being associated with more DoA). Mortality during transport is thus related to all production steps from the farm to the slaughterhouse. Efforts have therefore to be made by all professionals to contain mortality on farm and during catching and transportation.

Prevalence and risk factors for Salmonella spp. contamination in French broiler-chicken flocks at the end of the rearing period.

A nation-wide survey was carried out in 370 randomly chosen French commercial broiler chicken flocks from October 2005 to September 2006 to determine Salmonella spp. prevalence and to identify risk factors for contamination, at the end of the rearing period. The Salmonella status of the flocks was assessed from five faecal samples (litter swabs) analysed by classical bacteriological methods. A flock with at least one contaminated sample was classified as a Salmonella-positive flock. The apparent prevalence of Salmonella was 8.6% (95% CI: 5.7, 11.5%). The most prevalent serovar was S. hadar followed by S. anatum and S. mbandaka. Logistic regression methods were used to analyse the associations between husbandry practices, farm characteristics, general hygiene and the Salmonella status of the sample. The risk for Salmonella contamination of the flock at the end of the rearing period increased when neighbours helped in the placement of day-old chicks. On the contrary, the risk decreased when mobile equipment was dismantled before cleaning and disinfection, when the farm had a specific container for dead-bird disposal and when acetic acid was added to the drinking water.

Factors influencing bacterial eggshell contamination in conventional cages, furnished cages and free-range systems for laying hens under commercial conditions.

1. The aim was to assess eggshell contamination in various laying hen-housing systems and to identify factors influencing this contamination. 2. Fifty-eight laying hen farms in France were studied, including 21 flocks housed in conventional cages, 7 in furnished cages and 30 kept on-floor. 3. Sixty eggs per flock were analysed to obtain counts of the total mesophilic flora. Data on equipment and hen management were collected. 4. Mean bacterial count on eggshells tended to be higher in on-floor systems (4.82 +/- 0.51 log CFU/eggshell) than in cage systems (4.57 +/- 0.58 log CFU/eggshell, P = 0.09). 5. Contamination increased with age of the hens, airborne dust concentration, manual packing of the eggs, and packing in plastic rather than in recycled-pulp egg-flats. 6. The effect of the housing system on eggshell contamination, previously described in experimental assays, was confirmed under production conditions.

Risk and indicators of condemnation of male turkey broilers in western France, February-July 2006.

A field study was conducted to estimate the sanitary condemnation proportion in male turkey broiler flocks, to describe the reasons for condemnation and the related macroscopic lesions, and to investigate whether primary production information would predict the risk of condemnation. Male turkey standard broiler flocks (117) were randomly selected in the 13 slaughterhouses located in Western France, from February to July 2006. The flocks were monitored from their arrival at the slaughterhouse until the results of the post mortem sanitary inspection. Information about rearing conditions, health history, catching and loading conditions, transportation to the slaughterhouse and slaughtering was also collected. Sampling design was considered in the calculations and the condemnation proportion was modelled using a negative binomial regression, accounting for clustering within slaughterhouse. The within-flock weighted average condemnation proportion was 1.8% (95% confidence interval, 1.3-2.3%). Emaciation, arthritis-polyarthritis and congestion were the main reported official reasons for condemnation, representing 76% of the condemned carcases. Three variables were significantly associated with increased risk of condemnation: observed locomotor disorders on the farm, high cumulative mortality 2 weeks before slaughter, and clinical signs observed by the Veterinary Services during the ante mortem inspection at the slaughterhouse. The final model explained 35% of the total variation in condemnation risk. Half of this explained variation could be attributed to locomotor disorders observed during rearing. The sensitivity and specificity of the model to predict a high flock condemnation risk were 80% and 74%, respectively, when using an optimum threshold of 0.95% to define high risk. The results of this study suggested that the variables found to be associated with condemnation proportion were markers of increased risk and could be used as indicators. These risk indicators can easily be retrieved from the pre-existing regulatory document transmitted before flock arrival at the slaughterhouse and could be used to screen flocks before slaughter, according to their expected risk of condemnation.

Skin lesions in broiler chickens measured at the slaughterhouse: relationships between lesions and between their prevalence and rearing factors.

1. This slaughterhouse-based study was to evaluate correlations between cutaneous lesions which are linked to animal welfare. The relationships between these lesions and various rearing factors were investigated. 2. The percentage of lesions in each flock was determined by observation at the slaughterhouse. Fifty-five flocks slaughtered between May 2005 and May 2006 in 8 slaughterhouses were investigated. 3. Data relating to farm management and housing factors during the rearing period were collected retrospectively from 36 of the 55 flocks scored for lesions. 4. A negative correlation was observed between (i) presence of breast blisters and deep hock burns, (ii) presence of breast blisters and deep footpad dermatitis, and (iii) presence of breast burns and scratches. 5. We proposed an assessment of broiler chicken welfare at the slaughterhouse on the basis of several criteria: (i) footpad dermatitis, hock burns and breast burns, (ii) scratches, and (iii) breast blisters. 6. The presence of contact dermatitis was related to litter quality and several management factors. Only scratches and breast blisters were related to high stocking density. The type of lesion was related to genotype. Genotype A (fast-growing) had fewer breast blisters but deeper footpad lesions than B (slower-growing).

Feasibility of screening broiler chicken flocks for risk markers as an aid for meat inspection.

The feasibility of using risk markers to screen broiler chicken flocks and anticipate their risk of condemnation at meat inspection was examined in 404 randomly selected flocks in 15 French slaughterhouses in 2005. Condemnation rate and information about rearing conditions, health history, catching and loading, transport and slaughtering were collected. The Poisson regression model of the condemnation rate consisted of six simple and biologically relevant predictors: production type, frequency of farmer's visits during the starting period, health disorders during rearing, on-farm mortality, mortality during transport, and slaughter-line speed. Although accurate prediction of the condemnation rate for a given flock was not feasible, flocks with low or high risk of condemnation could be distinguished. These findings could be useful at various stages of chicken production, to monitor and improve farm husbandry practices, minimize the impact of transport conditions, and optimize meat inspection procedures.