Long-term calorie restriction prevented memory impairment in middle-aged male mice and increased a marker of DNA oxidative stress in hippocampal dentate gyrus.

Calorie restriction (CR) is a non-invasive and economic approachknown to increase healthspan and life expectancy, through a decrease in oxidative stress, an increase in neurotrophins, among other benefits. However, it is not clear whether its benefit could be noted earlier, as at the beginning of middle-age. Hence, weaimed to determine whether six months of long-term CR, from early adulthood to the beginning of middle age (10 months of age) could positively affect cognitive, neurochemical, and behavioral parameters. Male C57BL6/J mice were randomly distributed into Young Control (YC, ad libitum food), Old Control (OC, ad libitum food), and Old Restricted (OR, 30 % of caloric restriction) groups. To analyze the cognitive and behavioral aspects, the novel object recognition task (NOR), open field, and elevated plus maze tests were performed. In addition, immunohistochemistry targetingΔFosB (neuronal activity), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the DNA oxidative damage (8OHdG) in hippocampal subfields CA1, CA2, CA3, and dentate gyrus (DG), and in basolateral amygdala and striatum were performed. Our results showed that long-term CR prevented short-term memory impairment related to aging and increased 8OHdG in hippocampal DG. BDNF was not involved in the effects of either age or CR on memory at middle-age, as it increased in CA3 of the OC group but was not altered in OR. Regarding anxiety-type behavior, no parameter showed differences between the groups. In conclusion, while the effects of long-term CR on anxiety-type behavior were inconclusive, it mitigated the memory deficit related to aging, which was accompanied by an increase in hippocampal 8OHdG in DG. Future studies should investigate whether the benefits of CR would remain if the restriction were interrupted after this long-term protocol.

Degenerative changes induced by paradoxical sleep deprivation in rat sublingual glands.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate whether sleep deprivation can induce degenerative changes in rat sublingual glands. METHODS: For this purpose, a total of 24 males were distributed into three groups: control (n = 8), in which the animals were not subjected to any procedure; sleep deprivation (n = 8) in which the animals were submitted to sleep deprivation for 96 h; recovery (n = 8), in which the animals were subjected to paradoxical sleep deprivation for 96 consecutive hours followed by 96 h without intervention. Morphological changes in sublingual glands as well as the immunoexpressions of some proteins, such as Ki-67, p16, cleaved caspase-3 and BCL-2 were investigated in this setting. RESULTS: The results showed that paradoxical sleep deprivation induced tissue degeneration as a result of the presence of pyknosis, vacuoles and areas of salivary retention, in the experimental groups. Expression of cleaved caspase 3 and BCL-2 were increased in both sleep deprivation and recovery groups. The analysis of Ki-67 showed an increase in expression only in the recovery group, associated with a decrease in p16 levels. CONCLUSION: Sleep deprivation can induce a degenerative process in the parenchyma of sublingual gland by means of dysregulation of apoptosis associated with proliferative activity.

The influence of sex and reproductive cycle on cocaine-induced behavioral and neurobiological alterations: a review.

This systematic review (SR) was aimed at answering two questions: (1) how sex and ovarian hormones alter behavior associated with cocaine use; (2) which possible neurobiological mechanisms explain behavioral differences. Three different researchers conducted a search in PUBMED for all kinds of articles published between the years of 1991 to 2021 on the theme "reproductive cycle and cocaine", "estrous cycle and cocaine", "menstrual cycle and cocaine", "fluctuation of ovarian hormones and cocaine", "estrogen and cocaine" and "progesterone and cocaine". Sixty original studies were identified and subdivided into experimental rodent studies and clinical trials. Experimental studies were characterized by author/year, species/strain, sex/number, age/weight, dose/route/time of administration, hormonal assessment, or administration. Clinical trials were characterized by author/year, sex/number, age, exclusion criterion, dose/route of administration/time of cocaine, and hormonal assessment. Results gathered showed that rodent females develop increased consumption, seeking behavior, craving, relapse, locomotion, increases in stress and anxiety, among other behavioral alterations during peaks of estrogen. These observations are related to the direct effects played by ovarian hormones (in particularly estradiol), in dopamine, but also in serotonin neurons, and in brain regions such as the tegmental area, the nucleus accumbens, the hypothalamus, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. Increased sensitization to cocaine presented by high estradiol females was linked to the activation of a CBR1-mediated mechanism and GABA-A-dependent suppression of inhibitory synaptic activity of the prelimbic prefrontal cortex. Estradiol facilitation of cocaine-increased locomotion and self-administration was shown to require the release of glutamate and the activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors subtype 5. Clinical studies also tend to point to a stimulatory effect of estradiol on cocaine sensitization and a neuroprotective effect of progesterone. In conclusion, the results of the present review indicate a need for further preclinical and clinical trials and neurobiological studies to better understand the relationship between sex and ovarian hormones on cocaine sensitization.

Paradoxical sleep deprivation induces tissue changes in the parotid gland of rats.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to evaluate if paradoxical sleep deprivation induces some tissue changes in the parotid gland of rats. METHODS: A total of 24 male Wistar rats were distributed into the following groups, as follows: Group 1-Control (CTRL; n = 8); Group 2-Sleep deprivation (PS; n = 8): the animals were submitted to Paradoxical Sleep deprivation for 96 h and Group 3-Recovery (R; n = 8): the animals were submitted to sleep loss for 96 h, followed by a period of 96 h without any intervention. The following parameters were evaluated: microscopic analysis, immunohistochemistry for Caspase-3, Ki-67, and COX-2 and gene expression of cytochrome C, TNF-α, and Interleukins 6, 10. RESULTS: The results pointed out acinar atrophy, and the presence of cytoplasmic vacuoles in the parenchyma of the experimental groups. In the same groups, there was differential expression of interleukins 6, 10 and TNF-α. Apoptosis was also increased by means of cleaved caspase 3 expression. The cellular proliferation (ki-67 expression) was increased the R group. CONCLUSION: Taken together, sleep deprivation induces tissue degeneration, inflammatory process, as well as activate apoptosis in the parotid gland of rats.

Effects of long-term social isolation on central, behavioural and metabolic parameters in middle-aged mice.

Social isolation gained discussion momentum due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Whereas many studies address the effects of long-term social isolation in post-weaning and adolescence and for periods ranging from 4 to 12 weeks, little is known about the repercussions of adult long-term social isolation in middle age. Thus, our aim was to investigate how long-term social isolation can influence metabolic, behavioural, and central nervous system-related areas in middle-aged mice. Adult male C57Bl/6 mice (4 months-old) were randomly divided into Social (2 cages, n = 5/cage) and Isolated (10 cages, n = 1/cage) housing groups, totalizing 30 weeks of social isolation, which ended concomitantly with the onset of middle age of mice. At the end of the trial, metabolic parameters, short-term memory, anxiety-like behaviour, and physical activity were assessed. Immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus (ΔFosB, BDNF, and 8OHDG) and hypothalamus (ΔFosB) was also performed. The Isolated group showed impaired memory along with a decrease in hippocampal ΔFosB at dentate gyrus and in BDNF at CA3. Food intake was also affected, but the direction depended on how it was measured in the Social group (individually or in the group) with no alteration in ΔFosB at the hypothalamus. Physical activity parameters increased with chronic isolation, but in the light cycle (inactive phase), with some evidence of anxiety-like behaviour. Future studies should better explore the timepoint at which the alterations found begin. In conclusion, long-term social isolation in adult mice contributes to alterations in feeding, physical activity pattern, and anxiety-like behaviour. Moreover, short-term memory deficit was associated with lower levels of hippocampal ΔFosB and BDNF in middle age.

Inflammatory activity and apoptosis are associated with tissue degeneration in the submandibular gland of rats submitted to paradoxical sleep deprivation.

The aim of this study was to evaluate if paradoxical sleep deprivation is able to induce tissue degeneration, inflammatory activity and apoptosis in the submandibular gland of rats. A total of 24 male Wistar rats were distributed into the following groups: group 1-control (CTRL; n = 8): the animals were not submitted to any procedures; group 2-sleep deprivation (PS; n = 8): the animals were submitted to paradoxical sleep deprivation for 96 h and group 3-recovery (R; n = 8): the animals were submitted to sleep deprivation for 96 h, followed by a period of 96 h without any intervention. The following parameters were evaluated: histopathological analysis, immunohistochemistry for Ki-67, COX-2 and cleaved caspase-3 and gene expression of TNF-α, Interleukin 6 (IL-6), Interleukin 10 (IL-10) and cytochrome C by real-time PCR. The results pointed out cytoplasmic vacuoles and congested vessels in the parenchyma of submandibular gland the in PS and R groups. The expression of interleukins 6, 10 and TNF-ɑ was differentially expressed in the PS and R groups. Apoptosis was also triggered by means of increasing cleaved caspase-3 and cytochrome c expression. The cellular proliferation (Ki-67 index) was also positive in the R group. Taken together, our results demonstrate that sleep deprivation is capable of promoting tissue degeneration in the submandibular gland, as a result of inflammatory response and cellular death in rats.

High and fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones induce an anxiogenic effect, which can be modulated under stress conditions: Evidence from an assisted reproductive rodent model.

Elevated levels of endogenous ovarian hormones are conditions commonly experienced by women undergoing assisted reproductive technologies (ART). Additionally, infertility-associated stress and treatment routines are factors that together may have a highly negative impact on female emotionality, which can be aggravated when several cycles of ART are needed to attempt pregnancy. This study aimed to investigate the effect of high and fluctuating levels of gonadal hormones induced by repeated ovarian stimulation on the stress response in rodents. To mimic the context of ART, female rats were exposed to an unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) paradigm for four weeks. During this time, three cycles of ovarian stimulation (superovulation) (150 IU/Kg of PMSG and 75 IU/Kg of hCG) were applied, with intervals of two estrous cycles between them. The rats were distributed into four groups: Repeated Superovulation/UCMS; Repeated Superovulation/No Stress; Saline/UCMS; and Saline/No Stress. Anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviors were evaluated in a light-dark transition box and by splash test, respectively. Corticosterone, estradiol, progesterone, and biometric parameters were assessed. Data were analyzed using a two-way Generalized Linear Model (GzLM). Our results showed that repeated ovarian stimulation exerts by itself an expressive anxiogenic effect. Surprisingly, when high and fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones were combined with chronic stress, anxiety-like behavior was no longer observed, and a depressive-like state was not detected. Our findings suggest that females subjected to emotional overload induced by repeated ovarian stimulation and chronic stress seem to trigger the elaboration of adaptive coping strategies.

Insulin Modulates Myogenesis and Muscle Atrophy Resulting From Skin Scald Burn in Young Male Rats.

BACKGROUND: Burn injuries (BIs) due to scalding are one of the most common accidents among children. BIs greater than 40% of total body surface area are considered extensive and result in local and systemic response. We sought to assess morphological and myogenic mechanisms through both short- and long-term intensive insulin therapies that affect the skeletal muscle after extensive skin BI in young rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Wistar rats aged 21 d were distributed into four groups: control (C), control with insulin (C + I), scald burn injury (SI), and SI with insulin (SI + I). The SI groups were submitted to a 45% total body surface area burn, and the C + I and SI + I groups received insulin (5 UI/Kg/d) for 4 or 14 d. Glucose tolerance and the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance index were determined. Gastrocnemius muscles were analyzed for histopathological, morphometric, and immunohistochemical myogenic parameters (Pax7, MyoD, and MyoG); in addition, the expression of genes related to muscle atrophy (MuRF1 and MAFbx) and its regulation (IGF-1) were also assessed. RESULTS: Short-term treatment with insulin favored muscle regeneration by primary myogenesis and decreased muscle atrophy in animals with BIs, whereas the long-term treatment modulated myogenesis by increasing the MyoD protein. Both treatments improved histopathological parameters and secondary myogenesis by increasing the MyoG protein. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with insulin benefits myogenic parameters during regeneration and modulates MuRF1, an important mediator of muscle atrophy.

Reproductive toxicity in male juvenile rats: Antagonistic effects between isolated agrochemicals and in binary or ternary combinations.

The management of agrochemicals in Brazilian agriculture impacts global environmental sustainability and food security, since this country is one of the major agro-food exporters in the world. Acephate, carbendazim, and dithiocarbamates (DTCs) such as mancozeb, are among the most detected agrochemicals in Brazilian agro-food products, occurring in combination in several crops, especially in fruit cultures. The present study evaluated the impact of the exposure to isolated agrochemicals and all the combined possible mixtures (binary and ternary forms) on the reproductive parameters of male juvenile rats, known to be a vulnerable biological system and developmental window. Data were analyzed using Generalized Linear Models (GzLM), considering each agrochemical as an independent factor. The study revealed higher reproductive toxicity exerted by isolated agrochemicals when compared to the combined treatments, which exhibited mostly an antagonistic effect. Results suggest endocrine disruptive effects of each one separately on the weight of reproductive organs and testicular histomorphometry, besides changes in testicular SOD activity. The full factorial experimental design employed here allowed us to conclude that it is not possible to scale-up the effects of the isolated treatments to the mixtures, showing how difficult it is to know beforehand the response and cross-talk among the multiple physiological mechanisms disturbed by complex mixtures. Considering that food products are shared on a global scale and that some of these three agrochemicals have already been prohibited in EU countries, the consumption of some Brazilian products puts global human health at risk, that of children.

A single ovarian stimulation, as performed in assisted reproductive technologies, can modulate the anxiety-like behavior and neuronal activation in stress-related brain areas in rats.

Infertility affects about 8 to 12% of couples of childbearing age around the world, and is recognized as a global public health issue by the WHO. From a psychosocial perspective, infertile individuals experience intense psychological distress, related to emotional disorders, which have repercussions on marital and social relationships. The symptoms persist even after seeking specialized treatment, such as assisted reproductive technologies (ART). While the stress impact of ART outcome has been comprehensively studied, the role of supraphysiological concentrations of gonadal hormones on stress response, remains to be elucidated. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of a single ovarian stimulation on the stress response in rats. To mimic the context of ART in rodents, female rats were submitted to the superovulation (150 UI/kg of PMSG and 75 UI/kg of hCG) and then to psychogenic stress (restraint stress for 30 min/day, repeated for three days). Anxiety-like behavior was evaluated in the elevated plus-maze, and neuronal activation in the stress-related brain areas assessed by Fos protein immunoreactivity. Corticosterone, estradiol, progesterone and corpora lutea were quantified. Data were analyzed using Generalized Linear Model (GzLM). Our findings indicate anxiolytic-like and protective effects of supraphysiological concentrations of gonadal hormones induced by a single ovarian stimulation on stress response. An activation of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal response inhibitory pathways, with participation of the prefrontal cortex, basomedial amygdala, lateral septum, medial preoptic area, dorsomedial and paraventricular hypothalamus, was detected.

Corrigendum: The Blood-Brain Barrier Breakdown During Acute Phase of the Pilocarpine Model of Epilepsy Is Dynamic and Time-Dependent.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00382.].

Anxiolytic and panicolytic-like effects of environmental enrichment seem to be modulated by serotonin neurons located in the dorsal subnucleus of the dorsal raphe.

In a previous study, we showed that exposure of rats to a one-week environmental enrichment (EE) protocol decreases elevated T-maze (ETM) avoidance responses, an anxiolytic-like effect, without altering escape reactions, in clinical terms related to panic disorder. These anxiolytic-like effects were followed by decreased delta FosB-immunoreactivity (delta FosB-ir) in the cingulate cortex, dorsolateral and intermediate lateral septum, hippocampus (cornus of Ammon), anterior and dorsomedial hypothalamus, medial and basolateral amygdala and ventral region of the dorsal raphe nucleus. The purpose of the present study was to further investigate behavioral and neurophysiological alterations induced by EE exposure. For that, in a first experiment we verified if increasing the time of exposure to the same EE protocol used in our previous study (from one to two weeks) altered male Wistar rats' ETM escape responses. All animals were tested in an open field, immediately after the ETM, for locomotor activity assessment. Since anxiety and panic-related reactions have been associated to the functioning of specific subnuclei of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR), we also evaluated delta FosB-ir in serotonergic cells of DR regions. At last, we analyzed plasma corticosterone levels in animals submitted to EE and to standard housing. Results showed that a two-week exposure to EE decreases both ETM avoidance and escape reactions, inducing anxiolytic and panicolytic-like effects, respectively. There was also a significant decrease in the number of double staining neurons in the midrostral region of the dorsal subnucleus of the dorsal raphe. No changes in corticosterone levels, however, were observed. These results contribute to a better understanding of the effects of EE on anxiety and panic-related responses.

The Blood-Brain Barrier Breakdown During Acute Phase of the Pilocarpine Model of Epilepsy Is Dynamic and Time-Dependent.

The maintenance of blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity is essential for providing a suitable environment for nervous tissue function. BBB disruption is involved in many central nervous system diseases, including epilepsy. Evidence demonstrates that BBB breakdown may induce epileptic seizures, and conversely, seizure-induced BBB disruption may cause further epileptic episodes. This study was conducted based on the premise that the impairment of brain tissue during the triggering event may determine the organization and functioning of the brain during epileptogenesis, and that BBB may have a key role in this process. Our purpose was to investigate in rats the relationship between pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE), and BBB integrity by determining the time course of the BBB opening and its subsequent recovery during the acute phase of the pilocarpine model. BBB integrity was assessed by quantitative and morphological methods, using sodium fluorescein and Evans blue (EB) dyes as markers of the increased permeability to micromolecules and macromolecules, respectively. Different time-points of the pilocarpine model were analyzed: 30 min after pilocarpine injection and then 1, 5, and 24 h after the SE onset. Our results show that BBB breakdown is a dynamic phenomenon and time-dependent, i.e., it happens at specific time-points of the acute phase of pilocarpine model of epilepsy, recovering in part its integrity afterwards. Pilocarpine-induced changes on brain tissue initially increases the BBB permeability to micromolecules, and subsequently, around 5 h after SE, the BBB breakdown to macromolecules occurs. After BBB breakdown, EB dye is captured by damaged cells, especially neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. Although the BBB permeability to macromolecules is restored 24 h after the start of SE, the leakage of micromolecules persists and the consequences of BBB degradation are widely disseminated in the brain. Our findings reveal the existence of a temporal window of BBB dysfunction in the acute phase of the pilocarpine model that is important for the development of therapeutic strategies that could prevent the epileptogenesis.

Chronic intermittent ethanol administration differentially alters DeltaFosB immunoreactivity in cortical-limbic structures of rats with high and low alcohol preference.

BACKGROUND: The role of specific cerebral areas involved in alcohol use disorder, such as the amygdala, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, has emerged as a subject of interest over recent years. Nevertheless, the role played by these regions is frequently confounded by different variables, among them are the patterns of alcohol consumption presented by the subjects. OBJECTIVES: The present study verified the effects of chronic voluntary ethanol intake (20 sessions) on DeltaFosB immunoreactivity (DeltaFosB-ir) in the amygdala, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of rats showing high and low preference for ethanol. METHODS: DeltaFosB-ir induced by chronic voluntary ethanol intake with a two-bottle intermittent access to 20% ethanol model in male Wistar rats was measured. Three groups of animals were analyzed: control (n = 6), low preference (n = 8) and high preference (n = 8) for ethanol, the latter two categorized from their pattern of voluntary consumption of the alcohol solution. RESULTS: Ethanol intake in high-preference rats increased DeltaFosB-ir in the central amygdala, CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus and decreased DeltaFosB-ir in the prelimbic cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. On the other hand, in low preference rats, chronic voluntary ethanol intake decreased DeltaFosB-ir in the medial amygdala, basolateral amygdala, dentate gyrus and anterior cingulate cortex. CONCLUSIONS: The present results suggest that different alcohol intake patterns are associated with a specific pattern of DeltaFosB-ir in brain structures that play a key role in controlling behavior and decision making, that is the amygdala, the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex.

Chronic corticosterone increases ΔFOSB and CRFR1 immunoreactivity in brain regions that modulate aversive conditioning.

Previous studies showed that chronic treatment with corticosterone facilitates elevated T-maze (ETM) inhibitory avoidance and a step-down avoidance task, responses that have been used to investigate aversive conditioning and memory processes. On the other hand, chronic corticosterone does not alter ETM escape from the open arms. The purpose of the present study was to further investigate the effects of chronic corticosterone treatment (200 mg pellets, 21-day release) in an animal model of anxiety that does not involve aversive conditioning: the light/dark transition model. We also investigated the pattern of ΔFosB immunoreactivity (ΔFosB-ir) in different brain regions. To examine how treatment with chronic corticosterone interferes with CRFR1 expression we measured CRFR1 in the same brain structures that exhibited increased ΔFosB-ir. Results showed that chronic treatment with corticosterone did not alter behavioral measurements performed in the light/dark transition model. On the other hand, ΔFosB-ir was increased in several structures that modulate aversive conditioning: the cingulate cortex, the ventro and dorsolateral septum, the amygdala, the paraventricular, dorsomedial and ventromedial hypothalamus, the periaqueductal grey matter, the dorsal raphe, and the median raphe nucleus. Chronic treatment with corticosterone also increased CRFR1-immunoreactivity in the ventrolateral septum, central amygdala, dorsomedial hypothalamus, ventral region of the dorsal raphe and median raphe. These results contribute to a better understanding of the behavioral and neurobiological alterations induced by chronic exposure to glucocorticoids.

Short time insulin treatment post burn improves elastic-collagen rearrangement and reepithelization.

Extensive burn may cause acute resistance to insulin, which accentuates hypermetabolism, impairs glucose metabolism, immune dysfunction and risks of sepsis. To minimize these effects, insulin is used as a treatment. The purpose was to analyze the collagen-elastic arrangement effects of insulin on the burned skin. Wistar rats were assigned in groups: control (C); control with insulin (C + I); scald burn injury (SBI); and SBI with insulin (SBI+ I). SBI were submitted to 45% total body surface area burn and the insulin-treated groups received insulin (5 UI/Kg/day) for 4 or 14 days (d). Insulin levels, glucose tolerance test and HOMA index were determined. The skin sections were analyzed for histophatological and morphoquantitative data. Histopathological findings showed increased reepithelization of SBI+ I and formation of a new muscle layer after 14 days. In the collagen-elastic arrangement, insulin for 4 days increased the volume fraction (Vv) of thin collagen and elastic fibers. After 14 days, independently of injury, insulin decreased the elastic fibers. Insulin was able to reverse damages in the collagen-elastic rearrangement and stimulate reepithelization after 4 days. Untreated scald-burned animals showed higher Vv of thick collagen after 4 days, while those treated had a higher Vv of thin collagen. The Vv of elastic fibers was increased in SBI+ I for 4 days. In conclusion, insulin treatment was able to stimulate reepithelization. It also reversed the damages to the collagen-elastic arrangement in the scald-burned group, improving the organization of thin collagen and increasing the Vv of elastic fibers in the injured group treated with insulin for a short time, that is, for 4 days.

Low-level laser therapy modulates demyelination in mice.

There are no effective therapies for remyelination. Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) has been found advantageous in neurogenesis promotion, cell death prevention, and modulation of inflammation in central and peripheral nervous system models. The purpose of this study was to analyse LLLT effects on cuprizone-induced demyelination. Mice were randomly distributed into three groups: Control Laser (CTL), Cuprizone (CPZ), and Cuprizone Laser (CPZL). Mice from CPZ and CPZL groups were exposed to a 0.2% cuprizone oral diet for four complete weeks. Six sessions of transcranial laser irradiation were applied on three consecutive days, during the third and fourth weeks, with parameters of 36 J/cm2, 50 mW, 0.028 cm2 spot area, continuous wave, 1 J, 20 s, 1.78 W/cm2 in a single point equidistant between the eyes and ears of CTL and CPZL mice. Motor coordination was assessed by the rotarod test. Twenty-four hours after the last laser session, all animals were euthanized, and brains were extracted. Serum was obtained for lactate dehydrogenase toxicity testing. Histomorphological analyses consisted of Luxol Fast Blue staining and immunohistochemistry. The results showed that laser-treated animals presented motor performance improvement, attenuation of demyelination, increased number of oligodendrocyte precursor cells, modulated microglial and astrocytes activation, and a milder toxicity by cuprizone. Although further studies are required, it is suggested that LLLT represents a feasible therapy for demyelinating diseases.

Lactulose decreases neuronal activation and attenuates motor behavioral deficits in hyperammonemic rats.

Lactulose is a nonabsorbable disaccharide commonly used in clinical practice to treat hepatic encephalopathy. However, its effects on neuropsychiatric disorders and motor behavior have not been fully elucidated. Male Wistar rats were bile-duct ligated, and 3 weeks after surgery, treated with lactulose administrated by gavage (1.43 or 3.57 g/kg), once a day for seven days. Plasma levels of ammonia, aspartate aminotransferase, total bilirubin, and creatinine were quantified and histopathological analysis of the livers was performed. Locomotor activity measurements were performed in an open field. The expression of water channel aquaporin-4 was investigated and the analysis of Fos protein immunoreactivity was used to evaluate the pattern of neural activation in brain areas related to motor behavior. Bile-duct ligated rats showed hyperammonemia, loss of liver integrity and function, impaired locomotor activity, reduced aquaporin-4 protein expression, and neuronal hyperactivity. Lactulose treatment was able to reduce ammonia plasma levels, despite not having an effect on biochemical parameters of liver function, such as aspartate aminotransferase activity and total bilirubin levels, or on the cirrhotic hepatic architecture. Lactulose was also able to reduce the locomotor activity impairments and to mitigate or reverse most changes in neuronal activation. Lactulose had no effect on reduced aquaporin-4 protein expression. Our findings confirm the effectiveness of lactulose in reducing hyperammonemia and neuronal hyperactivity in brain areas related to motor behavior, reinforcing the importance of its clinical use in the treatment of the symptoms of cirrhosis-associated encephalopathy.

The effects of calorie-matched high-fat diet consumption on spontaneous physical activity and development of obesity.

AIMS: To characterize the effects of a calorie matched high-fat diet (HFD) on spontaneous physical activity (SPA), body weight, inflammatory status and expression of genes related to energy homeostasis in hypothalamus of mice. MAIN METHODS: C57Bl/6 mice (n=5 per group) were fed a control diet (16.5% calories from fat) - control group (C), or a calorie matched HFD (60% calories from fat). We evaluated, periodically, body weight and SPA by infrared beam sensors and, at the end of the 12th week, we verified blood glucose levels, fat pads weight, plasma insulin, TNF-α and IL-6 by ELISA and the hypothalamic expression of 84 genes related to energy homeostasis, by quantitative real-time PCR array. KEY FINDINGS: Isocaloric HFD reduced SPA already in the first 48h and SPA was kept lower in the HFD compared to C throughout. These changes resulted in an increase in body weight, adiposity, TNF-α and IL-6, blood glucose and hyperinsulinemia in the HFD group when compared to the C group. Expression of the Agrp, Bdnf, Adra2b and Pyy genes were altered in the hypothalamus of HFD-fed mice, highlighting the downregulation of Bdnf, key regulator of energy homeostasis. SIGNIFICANCE: Dietary macronutrient distribution plays an important part in energy homeostasis that goes beyond its energy content. Despite calorie-matched, the HFD led to increased body weight and adiposity due to decreased SPA, highlighting the key role of SPA on energy balance. The changes in hypothalamic gene expression seem to underlie the reduction in SPA caused by HFD.

Alcohol consumption increases locomotion in an open field and induces Fos-immunoreactivity in reward and approach/withdrawal-related neurocircuitries.

Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder characterized by compulsion to seek and take the drug, loss of control in limiting intake and, eventually, the emergence of a negative emotional state when access to the drug is prevented. Both dopamine and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-mediated systems seem to play important roles in the modulation of alcohol abuse and dependence. The present study investigated the effects of alcohol consumption on anxiety and locomotor parameters and on the activation of dopamine and CRF-innervated brain regions. Male Wistar rats were given a choice of two bottles for 31 days, one containing water and the other a solution of saccharin + alcohol. Control animals only received water and a solution of 0.2% saccharin. On the 31st day, animals were tested in the elevated plus-maze and open field, and euthanized immediately after the behavioral tests. An independent group of animals was treated with ethanol and used to measure blood ethanol concentration. Results showed that alcohol intake did not alter behavioral measurements in the plus-maze, but increased the number of crossings in the open field, an index of locomotor activity. Additionally, alcohol intake increased Fos-immunoreactivity (Fos-ir) in the prefrontal cortex, in the shell region of the nucleus accumbens, in the medial and central amygdala, in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, in the septal region, and in the paraventricular and dorsomedial hypothalamus, structures that have been linked to reward and to approach/withdrawal behavior. These observations might be relevant to a better understanding of the behavioral and physiological alterations that follow alcohol consumption.