Results of a randomized controlled trial of the cannabis eCHECKUP TO GO personalized normative feedback intervention on reducing cannabis use, cannabis consequences, and descriptive norms.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of cannabis use disorder and its negative consequences among young adults has highlighted the need for prevention and early intervention programs. However, low treatment prevalence persists due to factors such as lack of perceived need, concerns about stigma, and limited access to treatment. To address these barriers, web-based cannabis interventions have been developed, but their efficacy remain limited. This study aims to evaluate the cross-site efficacy of the Cannabis eCHECKUP TO GO program, a web-based Personalized Normative Feedback and Protective Behavioral Strategies intervention for reducing cannabis use frequency and consequences in college students with willingness to change. METHODS: Participants were 781 students from three universities (two in Canada, one in the US) who reported using cannabis in the past month and expressed interest in reducing or engaging in safer cannabis use. The study randomly assigned them to either an experimental group that received personalized normative feedback or a control group that received information on healthy stress management. The study collected follow-up data 4 weeks after the initial intervention and measured participants' frequency of cannabis use, number of cannabis consequences, descriptive and injunctive norms at both time points. RESULTS: The results showed no significant reductions in cannabis use or negative consequences of use. However, students who received personalized normative feedback experienced a significant reduction in descriptive norms related to cannabis use, to be more in line with actual use. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that more targeted interventions may be necessary for university students who are already using and seeking help to reduce their use.

Trajectories of oppositional defiant disorder severity from adolescence to young adulthood and substance use, mental health, and behavioral problems.

Background: Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is a disruptive behavioral disorder; however, increasing evidence emphasizes irritable mood as a primary symptom of ODD. Objectives: This study investigated whether heterogeneous groups (classes) of individuals can be differentiated based on ODD sub-dimensions (irritability and defiance) or on overall ODD symptoms longitudinally. We also examine associations between ODD trajectory class and comorbid substance use (heavy episodic drinking, cannabis use), mental health (depression and anxiety) and behavioral symptoms (ADHD, aggression and substance use) in both adolescence and young adulthood (controlling for adolescent levels of each of these concerns). Method: Data were from a randomly recruited community sample of 662 Canadian youth (T1 ages 12-18) followed biennially for 10 years (T6 ages 22-29). Results: Growth mixture models revealed trajectories classes of ODD based on severity of symptoms. A three-class solution provided the best fit with Low (n = 119; 18%), Moderate (n = 473; 71.5%), and High (n = 70; 10.6%) ODD classes. Class trajectory differences were similarity based on symptoms severity (rather than type) for symptom sub-dimensions (irritability defiance). Adolescent and young adult substance use, mental health symptoms, and behavioral problems were significantly higher for the High ODD trajectory class compared to both other classes. Youth in the Moderate ODD trajectory class also showed higher comorbid symptoms in adolescence and young adulthood, compared to the Low ODD trajectory class. Conclusion: Early identification of children and adolescents with high or moderate ODD symptoms and interventions that simultaneously address defiance and irritability are supported by the findings.

Contexte: Le trouble oppositionnel avec provocation (TOP) est un trouble du comportement perturbateur; toutefois, des données probantes croissantes soulignent que l'humeur irritable est un symptôme primaire du TOP. Objectifs: La présente étude a investigué si les groupes (classes) hétérogènes de personnes qui peuvent être différentiées au mieux selon les sous-dimensions (irritabilité et défi) ou selon les symptômes généraux du TOP longitudinalement. Nous examinons également les associations entre la classe de trajectoire du TOP et l'utilisation de substances comorbide (lourde consommation d'alcool épisodique, utilisation de cannabis), la santé mentale (dépression et anxiété) et symptômes comportementaux (TDAH, agression et utilisation de substances) tant chez les adolescents que chez les jeunes adultes (contrôler les niveaux adolescents de chacun de ces problèmes). Méthode: Les données provenaient d'un échantillon communautaire recruté au hasard de 662 jeunes Canadiens (âges T1 2­18) suivis tous les deux ans pendant 10 ans (T6 âges 22­29). Résultats: Des modèles de mélange de croissance ont révélé des classes de trajectoire du TOP basées sur la gravité des symptômes. Une solution en trois classes a fourni le meilleur ajustement avec des classes de TOP faible (n = 119; 18 %), modérée (n = 473; 71,5 %), et élevée (n = 70; 10,6 %). Les différences de classes de trajectoire étaient également basées sur la gravité des symptômes (plutôt que sur le type) des sous-dimensions des symptômes (irritabilité, défi). L'utilisation de substances chez les adolescents et les jeunes adultes, les symptômes de santé mentale et les problèmes de comportement étaient significativement plus élevés pour la classe de la trajectoire élevée du TOP comparé aux deux autres classes. Les jeunes de la classe de trajectoire modérée du TOP présentaient aussi des symptômes comorbides plus élevés à l'adolescence et au jeune âge adulte, comparé à la classe de trajectoire faible du TOP. Conclusion: L'identification précoce des enfants et des adolescents présentant des symptômes élevés ou modérés du TOP et les interventions qui prennent en charge simultanément le défi et l'irritabilité sont soutenues par les résultats.

The Protective Role of Grit against Alcohol and Cannabis Use through Young Adulthood.

Introduction: Problematic substance use in young adulthood is consistently related to negative outcomes later in life. Understanding the factors that protect against problematic substance provides opportunities for early preventive intervention. We examine the protective role of grit - passion and perseverance for long-term goals - on substance use through young adulthood, a period of heightening risks for substance use. Methods: In this research, we use cross-lagged panel models and data from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey (N = 477, 52% female) to test the reciprocal within-time associations and the directional relationships between grit (passion and perseverance) and substance use (cannabis and alcohol) across three assessments (6 years, ages 18-29). All models controlled for sex and SES. Results: Significant findings show negative within-time associations between passions and perseverance and cannabis use at T1 (ages 18-24) and at T2 (ages 20-26), and significant, negative within-time associations between passion and perseverance and alcohol use (heavy episodic drinking) at T1 but not at T2. No significant across-time associations between passion and perseverance and substance use were found. Conclusion: Preventive interventions to enhance passion and perseverance may provide important targets for interventions for young adults to reduce current substance use. However, grit did not have an effect beyond the stability of cannabis use or alcohol use over time, suggesting effects may act by substituting proactive goals for current substance use.

Transparent, Open, and Reproducible Prevention Science.

The field of prevention science aims to understand societal problems, identify effective interventions, and translate scientific evidence into policy and practice. There is growing interest among prevention scientists in the potential for transparency, openness, and reproducibility to facilitate this mission by providing opportunities to align scientific practice with scientific ideals, accelerate scientific discovery, and broaden access to scientific knowledge. The overarching goal of this manuscript is to serve as a primer introducing and providing an overview of open science for prevention researchers. In this paper, we discuss factors motivating interest in transparency and reproducibility, research practices associated with open science, and stakeholders engaged in and impacted by open science reform efforts. In addition, we discuss how and why different types of prevention research could incorporate open science practices, as well as ways that prevention science tools and methods could be leveraged to advance the wider open science movement. To promote further discussion, we conclude with potential reservations and challenges for the field of prevention science to address as it transitions to greater transparency, openness, and reproducibility. Throughout, we identify activities that aim to strengthen the reliability and efficiency of prevention science, facilitate access to its products and outputs, and promote collaborative and inclusive participation in research activities. By embracing principles of transparency, openness, and reproducibility, prevention science can better achieve its mission to advance evidence-based solutions to promote individual and collective well-being.

Disruption of Transitions in High-Risk Substance Use from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: School, Employment, and Romantic Relationship Factors.

Background: Few studies have examined social-contextual moderators of substance use transitions from adolescence to young adulthood. A better understanding of the extent to which school, employment, and romantic relationships can disrupt high-risk use patterns could inform strategies for substance use prevention and treatment.Objective: The current study examines the extent school, employment, and relationship factors can disrupt transition in high-risk substance use patterns from adolescence to young adulthood.Method: Data were collected biennially from 662 youth in six assessments across ten years (2003-2013). Using latent transition analysis (LTA) that examined transition is substance use classes, we examined school, employment, and relationship moderators of use transitions.Results: Few differences were found during adolescence with the most significant findings occurring in the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Examining the transitions from adolescence to young adulthood (W4 to W6), we found evidence that school, employment, and relationship status disrupted problematic substance use patterns, such that, individuals that indicated entering school, working full-time, or getting married or entering a relationship were more likely to transition to a low-risk substance use class than remain in the high-risk class.Conclusions/Importance: Findings underscore the importance of school completion, obtaining stable career employment, and quality relationship to help reduce high-risk substance use patterns leading into young adulthood. Prevention and intervention efforts should consider the diverse needs of youth and be prepared to provide a wide range of services that include educational opportunities and career development if they want to reduce high-risk substance use patterns.

Patterns of marijuana use and physical health indicators among Canadian youth.

We examine how trajectories of marijuana use in Canadian youth (ages 15 to 28) are related to physical health indicators in adolescence and young adulthood. Youth were initially recruited in 2003 (N = 662; 48% male; ages 12 to 18) and followed for six waves. Five trajectories of marijuana use (Abstainers-29%, Occasional users-27%, Decreasers-14%, Increasers-20% and Chronic users-11%) were identified. Chronic users reported more physical symptoms, poorer physical self-concept, less physical activity, poorer eating practices, less sleep, and higher number of sexual partners during adolescence than other classes. Decreasers also reported poorer physical self-concept and poorer eating practices than abstainers. Other trajectory classes showed few significant health problems. Chronic users also reported more acute health problems (i.e. serious injuries, early sexual debut, higher number of sexual partners, greater likelihood of having a STI) in young adulthood than all other classes contributing to costs of healthcare. Youth who engage in early, frequent and continued use of marijuana from adolescence to young adulthood are at-risk of physical health problems in adolescence and young adulthood.

Is there a positive side to sensation seeking? Trajectories of sensation seeking and impulsivity may have unique outcomes in young adulthood.

INTRODUCTION: High levels of sensation seeking and impulsivity in adolescence are typically associated with risky behaviours; limited research has examined the relation of these traits to positive outcomes. Given that adolescence is a sensitive developmental period that can impact success later in life, we adopt the Positive Youth Development Framework to better understand how the development of self-reported sensation seeking and impulsivity may be differentially related to positive markers of early adulthood. METHOD: Data are from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey (T1 N = 662; 52% female), a six-wave longitudinal cohort study of Canadian youth. Parallel process latent class growth analysis estimated trajectories of sensation seeking and impulsivity identifying classes of youth (ages 14-28). Controlling for baseline age, sex, and socio-economic status, linear regression analyses examined how longitudinal patterns (classes) of sensation seeking and impulsivity were related to positive markers of early adulthood. RESULTS: Three classes of youth were identified. These varied in levels and trajectories of change in sensation seeking (Ss) and impulsivity (I): LowSs-LowI, 26%; HighSs-HighI, 35%; ModerateSs-LowI, 38%. In young adulthood (T6; ages 22-29), youth in the LowSs-LowI and ModerateSs-LowI classes had significantly higher educational and occupational achievement, and lower financial strain, compared to youth in the HighSs-HighI class. Further, the ModerateSs-LowI class was associated with the highest levels of income and well-being. CONCLUSIONS: Findings identified differential trajectories of sensation seeking and impulsivity, with youth in the ModerateSs-LowI class, followed by the LowSs-LowI class, reporting the most positive outcomes in young adulthood.

Age-varying effects of cannabis use frequency and disorder on symptoms of psychosis, depression and anxiety in adolescents and adults.

AIMS: We tested the age-varying associations of cannabis use (CU) frequency and disorder (CUD) with psychotic, depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescent and adult samples. Moderating effects of early onset (≤ 15 years) and sex were tested. DESIGN: Time-varying effect models were used to assess the significance of concurrent associations between CU and CUD and symptoms of psychosis, depression and anxiety at each age. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Adolescent data (V-HYS; n = 662) were collected from a randomly recruited sample of adolescents in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada during a 10-year period (2003-13). Adult cross-sectional data (NESARC-III; n = 36 309) were collected from a representative sample from the United States (2012-13). MEASUREMENTS: Mental health symptoms were assessed using self-report measures of diagnostic symptoms. CU was based on frequency of past-year use. Past-year CUD was based on DSM-5 criteria. FINDINGS: For youth in the V-HYS, CU was associated with psychotic symptoms following age 22 [b = 0.13, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.002, 0.25], with depressive symptoms from ages 16-19 and following age 25 (b = 0.17, 95% CI = 0.003, 0.34), but not with anxiety symptoms. CUD was associated with psychotic symptoms following age 23 (b = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.01, 1.01), depressive symptoms at ages 19-20 and following age 25 (b = 0.71, 95% CI = 0.001, 1.42) and anxiety symptoms ages 26-27 only. For adults in the NESARC-III, CU was associated with mental health symptoms at most ages [e.g. psychotic symptoms; age 18 (b = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.10, 0.33) to age 65 (b = 0.36, 95% CI = 0.16, 0.56)]. CUD was associated with all mental health symptoms across most ages [e.g. depressive symptoms; age 18 (b = 0.96, 95% CI = 0.19, 1.73) to age 61 (b = 1.11, 95% CI = 0.01, 2.21)]. Interactions with sex show stronger associations for females than males in young adulthood [e.g. V-HYS: CUD × sex interaction on psychotic symptoms significant after age 26 (b = 1.12, 95% CI = 0.02, 2.21)]. Findings were not moderated by early-onset CU. CONCLUSIONS: Significant associations between cannabis use (CU) frequency and disorder (CUD) and psychotic and depressive symptoms in late adolescence and young adulthood extend across adulthood, and include anxiety.

Depressive symptom trajectories and physical health: Persistence of problems from adolescence to young adulthood.

BACKGROUND: We examine how depressive symptom trajectories are related to adolescent and young adult subjective health, health-promoting, health-risk, and sexual risk behaviors, as well as cardiometabolic risks. METHOD: Data came from a community-based sample of youth (N = 662; 52% female) followed biannually, six times across 10 years. Latent class growth analysis identified four depressive symptom trajectories which were compared on adolescent (T1; ages 12-18) and young adult (T6; ages 22-29) health indicators. RESULTS: The Low stable trajectory (49%) showed the fewest health risks. The Persistent high trajectory (9%) reported higher physical symptoms, lower physical self-concept, less physical activity and sleep, and higher rates of smoking and sexual risk behaviors than the Low stable trajectory and risks for physical symptoms, physical self-concept, and physical activity worsened in young adulthood. Increasers (21%) showed risks for physical symptoms, physical activity, and sleep in adolescence and problems for physical symptoms and physical self-concept persisted in young adulthood. Decreasers (22%) showed risks for physical symptoms, physical self-concept, physical activity, and sleep in adolescence but these risks resolved into young adulthood. LIMITATIONS: Findings may not generalize to ethnic minorities. Sex differences were not examined due to sample size limitations and most variables, except cardiometabolic risks, were self-reported. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest early treatment of depressive symptoms that includes strategies addressing physical symptoms, physical self-concept, and physical activity may prove beneficial. Screening youth for physical symptoms and declines in health-promoting behaviors may also identify youth at risk of depression onset and progression.

Transitions in the use of multiple substances from adolescence to young adulthood.

BACKGROUND: Research indicates that many adolescents frequently use multiple substances. This study examines stability and transitions in the use and co-use of multiple substances (cigarette, alcohol, marijuana, illicit drugs) from adolescence to young adulthood. METHODS: Data were collected biennially from 662 youth in six assessments across ten years (2003-2013). We used latent class analysis (LCA) to classify youth by substances used at each wave and used latent transition analysis (LTA) to examine transition probabilities across waves. RESULTS: At each wave, a three-class model best fit the data. Classes included a poly-use class, that had the highest probabilities of use among all substances, a co-use class, that had high probabilities of use of alcohol and marijuana, and an alcohol-dominate class that started with low probabilities of use among all substances but showed increasing probabilities of alcohol use, at later ages. LTA showed that the probability of remaining in the poly-use class was the most stable from one wave to the next, followed by the alcohol-dominate class, and the co-use class. The most transitions occurred for the co-use class, with more individuals transitioning to the poly-use class than to the alcohol-dominate class. CONCLUSIONS: Strong stability among adolescent substance use classes was found between waves. Transitions were typically to classes using more substances, although, transitions to use fewer substances was evident for some individuals. Distinguishing stable and transitioning classes of substance use and co-use provides opportunities for prevention and intervention to disrupt high-risk use classes.

Ethical Challenges in Promoting the Implementation of Preventive Interventions: Report of the SPR Task Force.

Prevention science researchers and practitioners are increasingly engaged in a wide range of activities and roles to promote evidence-based prevention practices in the community. Ethical concerns invariably arise in these activities and roles that may not be explicitly addressed by university or professional guidelines for ethical conduct. In 2015, the Society for Prevention Research (SPR) Board of Directors commissioned Irwin Sandler and Tom Dishion to organize a series of roundtables and establish a task force to identify salient ethical issues encountered by prevention scientists and community-based practitioners as they collaborate to implement evidence-based prevention practices. This article documents the process and findings of the SPR Ethics Task Force and aims to inform continued efforts to articulate ethical practice. Specifically, the SPR membership and task force identified prevention activities that commonly stemmed from implementation and scale-up efforts. This article presents examples that illustrate typical ethical dilemmas. We present principles and concepts that can be used to frame the discussion of ethical concerns that may be encountered in implementation and scale-up efforts. We summarize value statements that stemmed from our discussion. We also conclude that the field of prevention science in general would benefit from standards and guidelines to promote ethical behavior and social justice in the process of implementing evidence-based prevention practices in community settings. It is our hope that this article serves as an educational resource for students, investigators, and Human Subjects Review Board members regarding some of the complexity of issues of fairness, equality, diversity, and personal rights for implementation of preventive interventions.

Health behavior changes in adolescence and young adulthood: Implications for cardiometabolic risk.

OBJECTIVE: Adolescence and young adulthood produce developmentally salient and contextual challenges for health behavior choices. The present study examines how changes in physical activity, nutrition, and sleep duration before and after high school graduation influence cardiometabolic risk (CMR) in adulthood (at ages 22-29). METHOD: Youth (N = 662; Time 1 ages 12-18; 48% male) were followed biannually across 10 years. Piecewise latent growth curve modeling was used to assess how changes in physical activity, nutrition, and sleep duration before and after high school influence CMR in young adulthood, accounting for baseline levels of each health behavior. Sex differences in associations were examined. RESULTS: Higher initial (baseline) levels of physical activity and nutrition predicted lower CMR. Increases in physical activity and nutrition before and after high school also contributed to lower CMR. When examined simultaneously, initial levels of physical activity and sleep duration (for female participants only) and increases in nutrition had independent effects on CMR. CONCLUSIONS: Prevention approaches that take into account the salient developmental and contextual differences in adolescence and young adulthood may improve efforts to prevent CMR. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Effects of Continuities in Parent and Peer Aggression on Relational Intimate Partner Violence in the Transition to Young Adulthood.

Past research suggests that exposure to parent psychological control and peer relational aggression and victimization experienced during adolescence is associated with relational intimate partner violence (IPV) in young adults (ages 22 to 29). However, the effects of continuities in these concerns across young adulthood have not been assessed. Relational IPV is characterized by behaviors intended to damage partner's emotional well-being and security in a romantic relationship (e.g., threatening to break up, purposefully ignoring, or causing jealousy). Six waves of data were collected biennially across 10 years from 662 participants (342 females) who were 12 to 18 years old in 2003. The 334 youth who were in a current romantic relationship at the sixth wave (T6, 10 years later) are the focus of this research. Tests of hypothesized structural equation models indicated that adolescent experiences of psychological control with fathers (but not mothers) predicted relational IPV at T6, but this association was no longer significant after accounting for continuity in father psychological control in young adulthood. Adolescent experiences of relational aggression and victimization with peers also predicted relational IPV at T6. This association remained significant for males, only, after continuity in experiences of relational aggression and victimization with peers in young adulthood was included in the model. Implications for the prevention of relational IPV in adolescence and young adults are discussed.

Frequent marijuana use and driving risk behaviours in Canadian youth.

BACKGROUND: A better understanding of the relations between patterns of marijuana use and driving risks in young adulthood is needed. METHODS: Secondary analyses of self-report data from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey. Youth (baseline ages 12 to 18; N=662; 52% females) were interviewed biannually (on six occasions) from 2003 to 2013 and classified as abstainers (i.e., used no marijuana in past 12 months), occasional users (i.e., used at most once per week), and frequent users (i.e., used more than once a week). RESULTS: In the frequent user group, 80% of males and 75% of females reported 'being in a car driven by driver (including themselves) using marijuana or other drugs in the last 30 days', 64% of males and 33% of females reported that they were 'intoxicated' with marijuana while operating a vehicle and 50% of males and 42% of females reported being in a car driven by a driver using alcohol. In addition, 28% of occasional users and also a small proportion of abstainers reported 'being in a car driven by a driver using marijuana or other drugs in the last 30 days'. INTERPRETATION: The high frequency of driving risk behaviours, particularly for frequent users, suggest that plans for legalization of recreational use should anticipate the costs of preventive education efforts that present an accurate picture of potential risks for driving. Youth also need to understand risks for dependence, and screening for and treatment of marijuana use disorders is needed.

HISTORIQUE: Il est nécessaire de mieux comprendre les liens entre les habitudes de consommation de marijuana et la conduite à risque chez les jeunes adultes. MÉTHODOLOGIE: Les auteurs ont procédé à des analyses secondaires de données autodéclarées tirées du sondage sur la santé des jeunes de Victoria. Dans ce sondage, les jeunes (de 12 à 18 ans en début d'étude, n=662; 52 % de filles) ont participé à une entrevue tous les deux ans (à six reprises) entre 2003 et 2013. Ils ont été classés comme abstinents (aucune consommation de marijuana dans les 12 mois précédents), consommateurs occasionnels (consommation maximale d'une fois par semaine) et consommateurs fréquents (consommation plus d'une fois par semaine). RÉSULTATS: Dans le groupe des consommateurs fréquents, 80 % des garçons et 75 % des filles ont déclaré « avoir été dans une voiture conduite par une personne (y compris eux-mêmes) qui avait consommé de la marijuana ou d'autres drogues dans les 30 jours précédents ¼, 64 % des garçons et 33 % des filles ont affirmé avoir déjà été « intoxiqués ¼ par la marijuana lorsqu'ils conduisaient une voiture et 50 % des garçons et 42 % des filles ont indiqué avoir été dans une voiture conduite par quelqu'un qui consommait de l'alcool. De plus, 28 % des consommateurs occasionnels et une petite proportion d'abstinents ont déclaré « avoir été dans une voiture conduite par une personne qui avait consommé de la marijuana ou d'autres drogues dans les 30 jours précédents. ¼. INTERPRÉTATION: Compte tenu de la forte fréquence de conduite à risque, notamment chez les consommateurs fréquents, le projet de légaliser la consommation récréative devrait tenir compte des coûts de mesures d'éducation préventive qui présenteront un portrait précis des risques potentiels liés à la conduite. Les jeunes doivent également comprendre les risques de dépendance. Enfin, il est important de procéder au dépistage et au traitement des troubles liés à la consommation de marijuana.

The Longitudinal Effects of Oppositional Defiant Disorder Symptoms on Academic and Occupational Functioning in the Transition to Young Adulthood.

The young adult years are particularly important for accruing the education and work experience needed for long-term economic stability. We examine the effects of symptoms of ODD at baseline (i.e., T1 ages 12 to 18 years; N = 662; 48 % male) and of increases in these symptoms on academic and occupational functioning in young adulthood (i.e., T6 ages 22 to 29 years; N = 478; 45 % male) using multiple measures; including achievement levels (i.e., educational attainment, occupational prestige, and income) and financial and work stress (i.e., debt, financial strain, and perceived workplace stress). Our findings show that both adolescent levels of and increases in symptoms of ODD influence academic and occupational functioning in young adulthood. We discuss the implications of ODD symptoms for accruing economic capital in young adulthood, as well as approaches to detecting and intervening that are needed to halt the potentially cascading effects of ODD symptoms.

Enhancing Social Responsibility and Prosocial Leadership to Prevent Aggression, Peer Victimization, and Emotional Problems in Elementary School Children.

Testing the theories that form the basis of prevention programs can enhance our understanding of behavioral change and inform the development, coordination, and adaptation of prevention programs. However, theories of change showing the linkages from intervention program components to risk or protective factors to desired outcomes across time are rarely specified or tested. In this 2-year longitudinal study, we test the theory that increases in two protective factors (i.e., children's prosocial leadership and their teachers' expectations of social responsibility) targeted by the WITS Programs (Walk Away, Ignore, Talk it Out, and Seek Help) would be associated with declines in peer victimization, aggression, and emotional problems. Participants included Canadian students, in grades 1-4 at baseline (n = 1329) and their parents and teachers. Consistent with our theory of change, variability in program implementation (adherence and integration) and in children's use of program skills (child responsiveness) are related to increases in both protective factors. Increases in these protective factors are associated with subsequent declines in children's aggression, victimization, and emotional problems. We discuss how enhancement of these protective factors may operate to improve child outcomes and the need for theory-based research to refine and improve the effectiveness of intervention strategies and to improve program scale-up.

Sex and age group differences in the associations between sleep duration and BMI from adolescence to young adulthood.

OBJECTIVE: We examine concurrent and longitudinal associations between sleep duration (SD) and body mass index (BMI) from adolescence to young adulthood, controlling for physical activity and internalising symptoms. Sex and age group differences (early adolescent group ages 12-15 years and late adolescent group ages 16-18 years) are examined. DESIGN: A randomly selected community-based sample of youth (N = 662; 48.3% males) were surveyed biannually from 2003 (T1) to 2014 (T6). RESULTS: We found sex and age group differences for the concurrent and longitudinal associations between SD and BMI. For males, shorter SD at baseline was concurrently related to higher BMI. For females, shorter SD at baseline was associated with longitudinal increases in BMI, for the late adolescent group only. CONCLUSION: Findings show that the association between SD and BMI, previously shown in childhood, continues to be significant in adolescence and young adulthood. Developmentally appropriate and sex-specific strategies for motivating and supporting healthy sleep habits in adolescence that may help to prevent weight gain into young adulthood are discussed.

The Longitudinal Effects of Peer Victimization on Physical Health From Adolescence to Young Adulthood.

PURPOSE: Extensive research with children and adolescents documents the deleterious mental health outcomes associated with peer victimization, and recent research suggests that peer victimization is also associated with physical health problems in these age groups. The present study examines the concurrent and prospective links between physical and relational victimization and physical health problems (physical symptoms and physical self-concept) from adolescence to young adulthood (age 12-29 years). METHODS: Data were collected from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey, a six-wave multicohort study conducted biennially between 2003 and 2014 (N = 662). RESULTS: As expected, both relational and physical victimization were associated with greater physical symptoms and poorer physical self-concept concurrently and with physical self-concept over time. Relational victimization, which occurred more frequently, also predicted physical symptoms across young adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: Peer victimization puts adolescents at risk for immediate and long-term physical health difficulties. This study highlights the unique effects of physical and relational victimization and shows that victimized youth continue to experience poorer physical health for years after high school.

Planning for Sustainability of an Evidence-Based Mental Health Promotion Program in Canadian Elementary Schools.

Substantial research illuminates many factors effecting the implementation of evidence-based mental health promotion programs in schools; however, research on how schools plan for sustaining their investments in these programs is limited. In this qualitative study, we elicited descriptions of opportunities and challenges for sustainability. We interviewed 24 individuals from schools involved in a longitudinal, qualitative research project that followed uptake and implementation of the evidence-based WITS Programs across 2 years (Leadbeater et al. 2012). WITS stands for Walk away, Ignore, Talk it out and Seek help and the online WITS Programs focus on preventing peer victimization ( www.witsprograms.ca ). Our findings suggest that sustainability planning in schools is not merely a next step following high quality implementation, but rather involves multiple ongoing processes that need to be anticipated and supported by school leadership and program champions and developers in order to realize investments in evidence-based programs.

Reciprocal Effects of Internalizing and Oppositional Defiance Symptoms on Heavy Drinking and Alcohol-Related Harms in Young Adulthood.

There is a need for longitudinal research to understand how psychopathology relates to the onset and maintenance of substance use from adolescence into young adulthood. Hence, we investigate the longitudinal, reciprocal influences of internalizing (anxiety and depression) and externalizing (oppositional defiance) symptoms on heavy episodic drinking (HED; ≥5 drinks per occasion) and alcohol-related harms in a community-based sample of youth aged 12-27 years. Participants were chosen from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey, followed six times, biennially between 2003 and 2013 (N = 662). Analyses used cross-lagged panel models to examine reciprocal relations over time. Differences across age and sex were also tested. Defiance symptoms predicted increases in HED, which reciprocally predicted increases in defiance symptoms for females. Internalizing symptoms were related to HED within time for females. Alcohol-related harms had reciprocal positive associations with internalizing and defiance symptoms for both males and females. Associations were largely invariant across age groups, suggesting that the presence and strength of associations persisted across development. While psychopathology preceded the onset of HED and harms, the overall findings suggest that these risk processes are mutually reinforcing across development and that youth may become entrenched in an interdependent cycle that significantly increases their risk of comorbid disorders in adulthood.