Identifying governance strategies that effectively support ecosystem services, resource sustainability, and biodiversity.

Conservation scientists, national governments, and international conservation groups seek to devise, and implement, governance strategies that mitigate human impact on the environment. However, few studies to date have systematically investigated the performance of different systems of governance in achieving successful conservation outcomes. Here, we use a newly-developed analytic framework to conduct analyses of a suite of case studies, linking different governance strategies to standardized scores for delivering ecosystem services, achieving sustainable use of natural resources, and conserving biodiversity, at both local and international levels. Our results: (i) confirm the benefits of adaptive management; and (ii) reveal strong associations for the role of leadership. Our work provides a critical step toward implementing empirically justified governance strategies that are capable of improving the management of human-altered environments, with benefits for both biodiversity and people.

Governance and the loss of biodiversity.

Most of the world's biodiversity occurs within developing countries that require donor support to build their conservation capacity. Unfortunately, some of these countries experience high levels of political corruption, which may limit the success of conservation projects by reducing effective funding levels and distorting priorities. We investigated whether changes in three well surveyed and widespread components of biodiversity were associated with national governance scores and other socio-economic measures. Here we show that governance scores were correlated with changes in total forest cover, but not with changes in natural forest cover. We found strong associations between governance scores and changes in the numbers of African elephants and black rhinoceroses, and these socio-economic factors explained observed patterns better than any others. Finally, we show that countries rich in species and identified as containing priority areas for conservation have lower governance scores than other nations. These results stress the need for conservationists to develop and implement policies that reduce the effects of political corruption and, in this regard, we question the universal applicability of an influential approach to conservation that seeks to ban international trade in endangered species.

Field sports and conservation in the United Kingdom.

Many natural habitats exist on privately owned land outside protected areas, but few governments can afford to enforce or subsidize conservation of this biodiversity. Even in some developed countries, conservation subsidy schemes have only achieved limited success. Fortunately, some landowners may be willing to accept management costs in return for other benefits, although this remains controversial when it involves the killing of charismatic species. For example, participants in British field sports, such as fox hunting and game-bird shooting, may voluntarily conserve important habitats that are required by quarry species. Here we report results from a multidisciplinary study that addressed this issue by focusing on three sites across central England. We found that landowners participating in field sports maintained the most established woodland and planted more new woodland and hedgerows than those who did not, despite the equal availability of subsidies. Therefore, voluntary habitat management appears to be important for biodiversity conservation in Britain. Current debates on the future of field sports in Britain, and similar activities globally, may benefit from considering their utility as incentives to conserve additional habitat on private land.

Animal conservation, carbon and sustainability.

International conventions to reduce carbon dioxide levels focus on ecosystems and do not specifically recognize the need to conserve species. However, species are the building blocks of ecosystems, they are more widely understood among the public, and they provide means of capturing market values from ecosystems. Achieving successful conservation globally will require ensuring that the systems under which species and ecosystems are conserved are more inclusive than statutory protected areas. Equal emphasis needs to be placed on including effective regimes that also encompass private and communal ownership through incentive-based approaches. Nevertheless, if globalized industries such as nature-based tourism or consumptive use are to provide meaningful incentives locally, a key requirement is to reduce leakage of revenue that is earned as a result of conserving species, such that local development concerns are addressed. However, current biodiversity conventions that address these needs are largely aspirational, while globalized industries such as tourism mainly promote their green credentials only through voluntary codes of conduct. Greatly improved linkages are needed between international conservation concerns and ensuring effective solutions to sustainability, which inevitably rest at national and sub-national levels, through systems of rights, tenure, benefits and incentives.

Ovarian characteristics and reproductive performance of reindeer, Rangifer tarandus.

A total of 301 female reindeer of various ages was shot on South Georgia in all months of the year to study seasonal and age-related changes in ovarian structures, and to undertake an intraspecific comparison with North American caribou. Ovarian weights and follicle numbers did not change in reindeer calves, and it is concluded that the South Georgia population do not attain physiological puberty in their first year. Compared with caribou, reindeer showed an earlier onset of ovarian activity, and had twice as many follicles greater than 2 mm diameter and secondary corpora lutea. The relationship between luteal scars and age was significant (P less than 0.001), despite an overcount of scars relative to age in some individuals, and indicated a fecundity rate of 0.93. The left and right ovaries of reindeer were equally productive. It remains unclear whether the differences in reproductive performance between reindeer and caribou are of genetic origin.

Observations on the internal parasites of reindeer introduced into South Georgia.

Norwegina reindeer, Rangifer tarandus, were introduced to the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia in 1911 & 1925. Because there are few potential intermediate hosts and no other ungulates on the island, the internal parasite fauna of the reindeer is poor in species. Warble flies do not occur. Only three species of direct-cycling intestinal nematode and one species of cestode were found. Though the output of strongylid eggs rose in spring, parasites were probably not a primary cause of mortality.

Abnormal testes in reindeer, Rangifer tarandus.

In a sample of reindeer from South Georgia, 4 males were abnormal in that 1 had bilateral cryptorchid testis, 2 each had 1 cryptorchid testis and 1 had a vestigial testis. The antlers of the cryptorchid males were small, but the antler cycle itself was hardly affected.

Age-related changes in the testicular and antler cycles of reindeer, Rangifer tarandus.

A total of 111 male reindeer of various ages was shot in all months of the year to study the relationship between the seasonal changes in testicular activity and the antler cycle. From the changes in testis weight, seminiferous tubular tissue area and plasma testosterone values and the occurrence of spermatogenesis, it is concluded that calves attain physiological puberty in their first year, during which they also complete an antler cycle. The amplitude of the cyclical change in testis weight and plasma testosterone values increases with age and can be correlated with the earlier onset of events in the spermatogenic and antler cycles of older animals. The duration of the spermatogenic and testosterone cycles of reindeer is short, and is inversely related to the long period spent without antlers. It is suggested that testosterone strongly influences the antler cycle of reindeer males.