Patterns of Uveitis at Two University-Based Referral Centres in Cape Town, South Africa.

Purpose: To analyze the pattern of uveitis at two tertiary hospitals in South Africa which has a high prevalence of HIV, TB and syphilis. Methods: Data of 198 patients were obtained retrospectively between August 2014 and August 2016, including patient demographics, clinical examination, special investigations and final diagnosis. Results: Infectious uveitis was the most common aetiological category (47%), followed by idiopathic (34.8%) and non-infectious (18.2%). Syphilis was the most common identifiable cause (16.2%). Other important causes were toxoplasmosis, herpes viruses, tuberculosis and HLA-B27. HIV positive patients, who constituted 40% of the study population, were more likely to present with a posterior or panuveitis (relative risk 1.50, 95% CI 1.19-1.89) and more likely to have an infectious cause compared to HIV negative patients (relative risk 2.47, 95% CI 1.82-3.35). Conclusions: This study emphasizes the importance of HIV testing and investigations for infectious causes of uveitis, especially syphilis, in this population.

Anterior chamber paracentesis to improve diagnosis and treatment of infectious uveitis in South Africa.

Infectious uveitis is a significant cause of blindness in South Africa, especially among HIV-infected individuals. The visual outcome of uveitis depends on early clinical and laboratory diagnosis to guide therapeutic intervention. Analyses of aqueous humor, obtained by anterior chamber paracentesis, directs the differential diagnosis in infectious uveitis. However, although safe and potentially cost-effective, diagnostic anterior chamber paracentesis is not common practice in ophthalmic care across Africa. We seek to draw attention to this important procedure that could improve the diagnosis and prognosis of infectious uveitis.

The treatment of carcinoma in situ and squamous cell carcinoma of the conjunctiva with fractionated strontium-90 radiation in a population with a high prevalence of HIV.

BACKGROUND: This study explores the safety and efficacy of strontium 90 (Sr-90) brachytherapy as the sole adjuvant therapy for carcinoma in situ (CIS) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the conjunctiva in a high HIV prevalent area. METHODS: This is a retrospective case review of patients treated with 60 Gray Sr-90 brachytherapy in four divided doses after resection with a 2 mm margin and histological confirmation. Cryotherapy or alcohol debridement was not performed at the time of excision due to limited resources. Two plaque sizes, 8.5 mm and 18 mm, were used. RESULTS: Sixty-nine patients were treated and had a median follow-up of 27 months (range 6-127). Thirty-three (47.8%) were HIV-positive. CIS was present in 40.6% and SCC in 59.4%. The surgical margins were positive in 39 (56.5%). Twenty patients (29.0%) were treated with the 18 mm plaque and 49 (71.0%) with the 8.5 mm plaque. Eight (11.6%) patients developed a recurrence at a median of 5 months (range 2-40). Recurrences only occurred in patients treated with the 8.5 mm plaque (p=0.094). There was no significant effect of HIV status, positive margins or staging on the number of recurrences. Treatment side effects were a dry eye in five patients which was successfully managed with topical lubricants, and induced astigmatism of 1 dioptre of cylinder in one patient. CONCLUSIONS: Sr-90 brachytherapy is safe and effective in preventing recurrences in ocular surface squamous neoplasia in a high HIV prevalent setting. The 18 mm plaque size is superior to the 8.5 mm plaque size.

Prevalence of chronic ocular complications in Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study is to identify and grade the severity of chronic ocular complications in patients who suffered from Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) treated in Cape Town, South Africa. METHODS: A total of 54 patients with SJS or TEN for 6 months or longer were examined. The ocular complications were classified into corneal, eyelid and conjunctival complications. The complications were graded from 0 to 3 depending on the severity. RESULTS: A total of 108 eyes were included in the study. Medications caused SJS or TEN in all cases, and the most common associated drugs were anti-retroviral medications. 59.3% of patients were HIV-positive, with CD4 counts ranging from 6 to 521. Although only 11% of patients with SJS or TEN had acute ocular complications during the initial illness, 89% developed chronic ocular complications. Loss of the palisades of Vogt was the most common corneal complication. Among the six components of conjunctival and eyelid complications, irregularity of the mucocutaneous junction abnormalities was the most common, followed by mild conjunctival hyperemia. There was no statistically significant difference in the severity of chronic ocular complications between HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients (P = 0.4). In addition, the severity of chronic ocular complications was not statistically significantly associated with visual acuity loss (P = 0.3). CONCLUSION: We conclude that almost 90% of patients who are diagnosed with SJS or TEN will develop chronic ocular complications. Unless eyelids are severely affected, most chronic complications are mild to moderate ocular surface abnormalities and not necessarily vision-threatening complications.

Identification of ocular surface squamous neoplasia by in vivo staining with methylene blue.

AIM: To evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of methylene blue used as a non-invasive in vivo stain to detect ocular surface squamous neoplasia (OSSN). METHODS: A test validation study was performed according to Standards for the reporting of diagnostic accuracy studies (STARD) guidelines on 75 consecutive patients who presented with ocular surface lesions suspicious of OSSN. Methylene blue 1% was instilled in vivo following local anaesthetic. Stain results were documented photographically and read by an independent observer. Lesions were excised at the same visit and evaluated histologically by pathologists who were blind to the stain results. Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values were determined. RESULTS: Thirty-three patients had histologically malignant lesions, of which 32 stained with methylene blue, and 42 patients had benign or premalignant lesions, of which 21 stained with methylene blue. Methylene blue had a sensitivity of 97%, specificity of 50% and positive and negative predictive values of 60% and 96%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The topical application of methylene blue is a simple, inexpensive, non-invasive diagnostic test that can be helpful in excluding malignant ocular surface lesions but cannot replace histology as gold standard for diagnosis of OSSN.

Brachytherapy and endoresection for choroidal melanoma: a cohort study.

AIM: To report and compare the outcomes of brachytherapy and endoresection in the conservative treatment of medium sized choroidal melanoma. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study. Medium tumours were defined as 2.5-10 mm in height and less than 16 mm in the widest diameter. Consecutive patients undergoing brachytherapy at Groote Schuur Hospital were compared with a cohort undergoing endoresection from a national database. RESULTS: 148 brachytherapy and 22 endoresection patients were followed for a median of 55.4 and 62.4 months, respectively. Tumours undergoing endoresection were thicker (7.3 vs 4.9 mm, p<0.001, Wilcoxon rank-sum test) and further from the fovea (5.2 vs 3.7 mm, p=0.05, Wilcoxon rank-sum test) than those treated with brachytherapy. Visual acuity of 6/18 or better was maintained in 41% of the endoresection group and 35% of the brachytherapy group. The likelihood of achieving a final visual acuity of better than 2/60 was 22% higher in the endoresection group (risk ratio 1.22, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.28, p=0.034). Rates of local recurrence (18.2% vs 14.9%, p=0.75) and metastases or death (18.2% vs 14.2%, p=0.75) were higher in the endoresection group, and the enucleation rate was lower in this group (4.6% vs 10.8%, p=0.70) but these were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: The outcomes observed in this small cohort of endoresection patients suggest that endoresection of selected tumours may achieve better visual outcomes than brachytherapy. Rates of local recurrence, enucleation and metastases following endoresection require further research. Local recurrence is likely to be influenced by consolidation treatment methods.

The value of routine polymerase chain reaction analysis of intraocular fluid specimens in the diagnosis of infectious posterior uveitis.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the value of routine polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis on intraocular fluid from patients presenting with a first episode of suspected active infectious posterior uveitis in a population with a high prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus infection. DESIGN: Retrospective, interventional case series. Participants. 159 consecutive patients presenting at a tertiary care hospital over a five-year period. METHODS: PCR analysis was performed for cytomegalovirus, varicella zoster virus, herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, Toxoplasma gondii, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. RESULTS: PCR analysis confirmed the initial clinical diagnosis in 55 patients (35%) and altered the initial clinical diagnosis in 36 patients (23%). The clinical diagnosis prior to PCR testing was nonspecific (uncertain) in 51 patients (32%), with PCR providing a definitive final diagnosis in 20 of these patients (39%); necrotizing herpetic retinopathy and ocular toxoplasmosis were particularly difficult to diagnose correctly without the use of PCR analysis. CONCLUSION: The clinical phenotype alone was unreliable in diagnosing the underlying infectious cause in a quarter of patients in this study. Since the outcome of incorrectly treated infective uveitis can be blinding, PCR analysis of ocular fluids is recommended early in the disease even in resource poor settings.

Prevalence, causes and socio-economic determinants of vision loss in Cape Town, South Africa.

PURPOSE: To estimate the prevalence and causes of blindness and visual impairment in Cape Town, South Africa and to explore socio-economic and demographic predictors of vision loss in this setting. METHODS: A cross sectional population-based survey was conducted in Cape Town. Eighty-two clusters were selected using probability proportionate to size sampling. Within each cluster 35 or 40 people aged 50 years and above were selected using compact segment sampling. Visual acuity of participants was assessed and eyes with a visual acuity less than 6/18 were examined by an ophthalmologist to determine the cause of vision loss. Demographic data (age, gender and education) were collected and a socio-economic status (SES) index was created using principal components analysis. RESULTS: Out of 3100 eligible people, 2750 (89%) were examined. The sample prevalence of bilateral blindness (presenting visual acuity <3/60) was 1.4% (95% CI 0.9-1.8). Posterior segment diseases accounted for 65% of blindness and cataract was responsible for 27%. The prevalence of vision loss was highest among people over 80 years (odds ratio (OR) 6.9 95% CI 4.6-10.6), those in the poorest SES group (OR 3.9 95% CI 2.2-6.7) and people with no formal education (OR 5.4 95% CI 1.7-16.6). Cataract surgical coverage was 68% in the poorest SES tertile (68%) compared to 93% in the medium and 100% in the highest tertile. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of blindness among people ≥50 years in Cape Town was lower than expected and the contribution of posterior segment diseases higher than previously reported in South Africa and Sub Saharan Africa. There were clear socio-economic disparities in prevalence of vision loss and cataract surgical coverage in this setting which need to be addressed in blindness prevention programs.

South Africa's cataract surgery rates: why are we not meeting our targets?

Cataract is the leading cause of blindness in South Africa, responsible for about 50% of the prevalence of blindness and identified as a national health priority. The cataract surgery rate (CSR) should be at least 2 000 per million population per year for elimination of cataract blindness. The national CSR target was planned to increase from 1 000 in 2005 to 2 000 in 2010, but since CSRs have failed to reach targets each year, the national target for 2010 was reduced from 2 000 to 1 500. We reviewed data from a situational analysis in 2007 of cataract surgery services to ascertain the obstacles to achieving CSR targets.

Iodine-125 orbital brachytherapy with a prosthetic implant in situ.

PURPOSE: Brachytherapy is one method of irradiating the orbit after enucleation of an eye with a malignant tumor that has a potential to recur. It consists of 6 trains of I-125 seeds placed around the periphery of the orbit, a shorter central train, and a metal disc, loaded with seeds, placed beneath the eyelids. The presence of a prosthetic orbital implant requires omission of the central train and adjustment of the activity of the seeds in the anterior orbit around the prosthesis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This is a retrospective review of the technical modifications and outcome of 12 patients treated in this manner: 6 with retinoblastoma, 5 with malignant melanoma, and 1 with an intraocular rhabdomyosarcoma. The median dose was 35.5 Gy in 73 hours for retinoblastoma and 56 Gy in 141 hours for malignant melanoma. Patients with retinoblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma also received chemotherapy. RESULTS: The tubes can be placed satisfactorily around the prosthesis. The increased activity in the anterior half of the tubes produced comparable dose distributions. There have been no orbital recurrences, no extrusion of the prosthesis, and cosmesis is good. CONCLUSION: Insertion of a prosthetic implant at the time of enucleation greatly enhances the subsequent cosmetic appearance. This should be encouraged unless there is frank tumor in the orbit. Orbital brachytherapy without the central train continues to give excellent local control. The short treatment time and good cosmesis are added advantages. The patient is spared the expense and inconvenience of removing and replacing the prosthetic implant.

Mitomycin C in the treatment of a Schneiderian (inverted) papilloma of the lacrimal sac.

Schneiderian papillomas are benign tumours, with an aggressive nature. A case with a recurrent Schneiderian papilloma of the nasolacrimal sac, who underwent an external dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR) with irrigation of the nasolacrimal system with 0.02% mitomycin C (MMC), is presented at 18 months follow-up. External DCR using MMC, as an adjuvant therapy, is a novel approach to the treatment of Schneiderian papilloma of the nasolacrimal tract. It allows preservation of function, compared with the conventional treatment of dacryocystectomy.

Conservation of eyes with choroidal melanoma by a multimodality approach to treatment: an audit of 1632 patients.

OBJECTIVE: To report on conservation of eyes with choroidal melanoma with a multimodality approach to treatment. DESIGN: Prospective, noncomparative, interventional case series. PARTICIPANTS: All 1632 patients with choroidal melanoma treated at a single center between 1993 and 2002. INTERVENTION: Primary enucleation (35%), brachytherapy (31.3%), proton beam radiotherapy (16.7%), transscleral local resection (11.0%), endoresection (3.7%), transpupillary thermotherapy (2.5%), and photocoagulation (0.1%). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary and secondary enucleation. RESULTS: Logistic regression showed the main predictive factors for primary enucleation to be: age more than 60 years (odds ratio [OR], 2.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.8%-3.2%); reduced visual acuity (OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.9%-3.2%); posterior extension close to or involving the optic disc and fovea (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.2%-2.4%); circumferential spread around the ciliary body, iris, or angle (OR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.8%-5.5%); basal tumor diameter (OR, 3.5; 95% CI, 2.4%-5.0%); and tumor height (OR, 6.3; 95% CI, 4.5%-8.9%). After conservative treatment, the actuarial rate of secondary enucleation was 11.1% at 5 years (95% CI, 8.6%-13.6%). Cox multivariate analysis indicated the factors independently predicting secondary enucleation as: nasal/midline tumor location (risk ratio [RR], 2.6; 95% CI, 1.6%-4.4%); disc involvement (RR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.2%-4.1%); tumor diameter (RR, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.0%-1.5%); and tumor thickness (RR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.5%-2.1%). CONCLUSIONS: With a multimodality approach to treatment, 65% of patients underwent conservative treatment, and of them, 89% retained their eye at 5 years, with success depending on tumor diameter, tumor thickness, disc involvement, and coronal location.

Postenucleation orbits in retinoblastoma: treatment with 125I brachytherapy.

PURPOSE: Children with retinoblastoma that extends into or through the choroid, sclera, or optic nerve are at risk of developing orbital disease, as well as metastases. Previously, these enucleated orbits were treated with external beam radiotherapy in addition to chemotherapy. 125I brachytherapy for tumors in and around the eye was pioneered by Sealy in Cape Town, South Africa, in 1974. In 1983, he developed a technique to irradiate the contents of the orbit while limiting the dose to the bony orbit and eyelids. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Six nylon tubes containing 125I seeds were implanted through the eyelids around the periphery of the orbit. Each contained a metal gutter that screens the outer part of the seeds from the bony orbit. A seventh unscreened tube was placed in the center, and a metal disc with 125I seeds on its posterior surface was secured beneath the eyelids. Between 1983 and 2000, 57 orbits were treated in 56 children with retinoblastoma. Thirty-six were treated prophylactically and 21, with tumor at the resection line of the nerve, extrascleral tumor, or metastases, were treated therapeutically. They received a median dose of 34 Gy in 70 h; 30 also received chemotherapy. Children with tumor at the resection line of the nerve also received treatment to the craniospinal axis. RESULTS: The median follow-up of the 35 patients treated prophylactically was 35 months (range 0-187). Seven patients died, 6 of metastases, at a median of 10 months (range 4-29) after the implant. Eight of the 13 patients with microscopic extraocular tumor survived a median of 29 months (range 5-156). None of the 8 patients presenting with orbital tumor or metastases survived. No orbital recurrences developed in any of the patients. Cosmesis was considerably improved compared with previous forms of irradiation. CONCLUSION: Orbital brachytherapy is an effective method of irradiating the orbit to prevent recurrent tumor, the treatment time is short, and the cosmesis is much more acceptable than with other forms of irradiation. No facial atrophy or second nonocular tumors have occurred.