Electrophysiology reveals cognitive-linguistic alterations after concussion.

Language deficits and alterations to the N400 ERP are commonly reported in aphasia and moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), but have seldomly been investigated after mild TBI, such as concussion. In the present study, the N400 was recorded from young adults within 1-month after concussion and matched controls during a sentence processing task. The N400 recorded to semantically incongruent sentence-final words was significantly more negative and with a more anterior distribution in the concussion group than control group. Among the concussion group, a weaker N400 was associated with more concussion symptoms, slower response time, and poorer executive functioning. Multiple regression results showed that concussion occurrence and male gender were independently associated with a more negative N400-effect, whereas symptoms were associated with a weaker N400. These findings provide novel evidence that alterations to lexical-semantic networks may occur after concussion and vary based on individual differences in post-concussion symptoms and cognitive function.

A Routine Electroencephalography Monitoring System for Automated Sports-Related Concussion Detection.

Cases of concussions in the United States keep increasing and are now up to 2 million to 3 million incidents per year. Although concussions are recoverable and usually not life-threatening, the degree and rate of recovery may vary depending on age, severity of the injury, and past concussion history. A subsequent concussion before full recovery may lead to more-severe brain damage and poorer outcomes. Electroencephalography (EEG) recordings can identify brain dysfunctionality and abnormalities, such as after a concussion. Routine EEG monitoring can be a convenient method for reducing unreported injuries and preventing long-term damage, especially among groups with a greater risk of experiencing a concussion, such as athletes participating in contact sports. Because of the relative availability of EEG compared to other brain-imaging techniques (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging), the use of EEG monitoring is growing for various neurological disorders. In this longitudinal study, EEG was analyzed from 4 football athletes before their athletic season and also within 7 days of concussion. Compared to a control group of 4 additional athletes, a concussion was detected with up to 99.5% accuracy using EEG recordings in the Theta-Alpha band. Classifiers that use data from only a subset of the EEG electrodes providing reliable detection are also proposed. The most effective classifiers used EEG recordings from the Central scalp region in the Beta band and over the Temporal scalp region using the Theta-Alpha band. This proof-of-concept study and preliminary findings suggest that EEG monitoring may be used to identify a sports-related concussion occurrence with a high level of accuracy and thus reduce the chance of unreported concussion.

Clinical Utility of Oculomotor and Electrophysiological Measures in Identifying Concussion History.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether oculomotor and electrophysiological measures improve the clinical performance of the typical concussion protocol for classifying collegiate athletes with a history of concussion. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: University Athletic Medicine and Research Facility. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-five varsity collegiate athletes. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: Collegiate varsity athletes with or without a history of a diagnosed concussion. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Multivariate receiver operating curve and area under the curve (AUC) analyses tested the clinical performance of the typical concussion protocol (symptoms, postural control, neuropsychological abilities). We examined differences in clinical performance between this protocol and after adding reflexive saccade and event-related potential (ERP) indices. Hypotheses were formed after data collection. RESULTS: Significant AUCs were demonstrated for the typical concussion protocol (model 1: AUC = 0.75, P = 0.007), after adding reflexive saccade eye excursion gain (model 2: AUC = 0.80, P = 0.001), and ERPs (model 3: AUC = 0.79, P = 0.002). The AUC for reflexive saccades and ERPs was significant (model 4: AUC = 0.70, P = 0.030). Model 2's increased clinical performance compared with model 1 was nonsignificant, χ(2) = 1.871, P = 0.171. CONCLUSIONS: All 4 models demonstrated adequate sensitivity and specificity for classifying athletes with a previous concussion. Adding reflexive saccades and ERPs did not significantly increase clinical performance of the typical concussion protocol. Future research should determine the clinical utility of saccades and ERPs for acute postconcussion assessments.

Recommendations for Developing an EEG Laboratory at a Primarily Undergraduate Institution.

Given its relatively low cost and minimal required space, an EEG laboratory provides the most feasible human cognitive neuroscience technique to implement at primarily undergraduate institutions (PUI). However, neuroscience programs at PUIs may be deterred from incorporating EEG methods into their research programs and/or classrooms due to limited funds and resources. This article provides recommended guidelines for faculty researchers looking to set up an EEG lab at their host PUIs with an emphasis on feasibility. We offer considerations regarding infrastructure, equipment, personnel, and potential sources of funding. A case study is also provided, describing the successful implementation and development of an EEG/ERP lab at a Midwest PUI, Baldwin Wallace University. Our goal is to offer diverse options for starting a new, or revitalizing an existing, EEG lab. We contend that such a laboratory at a PUI will advance undergraduate students' access to interdisciplinary neuroscience research and curricular opportunities.

History of concussion impacts electrophysiological correlates of working memory.

Sports-related concussions occur in approximately 21% of college athletes with implications for long-term cognitive impairments in working memory. Working memory involves the capacity to maintain short-term information and integrate with higher-order cognitive processing for planning and behavior execution, critical skills for optimal cognitive and athletic performance. This study quantified working memory impairments in 36 American football college athletes (18-23years old) using event-related potentials (ERPs). Despite performing similarly in a standard 2-back working memory task, athletes with history of concussion exhibited larger P1 and P3 amplitudes compared to Controls. Concussion History group latencies were slower for the P1 and faster for the N2. Source estimation analyses indicated that previously concussed athletes engaged different brain regions compared to athletes with no concussion history. These findings suggest that ERPs may be a sensitive and objective measure to detect long-term cognitive consequences of concussion.

Long-Term Effects of Concussion on Electrophysiological Indices of Attention in Varsity College Athletes: An Event-Related Potential and Standardized Low-Resolution Brain Electromagnetic Tomography Approach.

This study investigated the effects of a past concussion on electrophysiological indices of attention in college athletes. Forty-four varsity football athletes (22 with at least one past concussion) participated in three neuropsychological tests and a two-tone auditory oddball task while undergoing high-density event-related potential (ERP) recording. Athletes previously diagnosed with a concussion experienced their most recent injury approximately 4 years before testing. Previously concussed and control athletes performed equivalently on three neuropsychological tests. Behavioral accuracy and reaction times on the oddball task were also equivalent across groups. However, athletes with a concussion history exhibited significantly larger N2 and P3b amplitudes and longer P3b latencies. Source localization using standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography indicated that athletes with a history of concussion generated larger electrical current density in the left inferior parietal gyrus compared to control athletes. These findings support the hypothesis that individuals with a past concussion recruit compensatory neural resources in order to meet executive functioning demands. High-density ERP measures combined with source localization provide an important method to detect long-term neural consequences of concussion in the absence of impaired neuropsychological performance.