Size-Dependent Effects of Polystyrene Nanoparticles (PS-NPs) on Behaviors and Endogenous Neurochemicals in Zebrafish Larvae.

Microplastics, small pieces of plastic derived from polystyrene, have recently become an ecological hazard due to their toxicity and widespread occurrence in aquatic ecosystems. In this study, we exposed zebrafish larvae to two types of fluorescent polystyrene nanoparticles (PS-NPs) to identify their size-dependent effects. PS-NPs of 50 nm, unlike 100 nm PS-NPs, were found to circulate in the blood vessels and accumulate in the brains of zebrafish larvae. Behavioral and electroencephalogram (EEG) analysis showed that 50 nm PS-NPs induce abnormal behavioral patterns and changes in EEG power spectral densities in zebrafish larvae. In addition, the quantification of endogenous neurochemicals in zebrafish larvae showed that 50 nm PS-NPs disturb dopaminergic metabolites, whereas 100 nm PS-NPs do not. Finally, we assessed the effect of PS-NPs on the permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) using a microfluidic system. The results revealed that 50 nm PS-NPs have high BBB penetration compared with 100 nm PS-NPs. Taken together, we concluded that small nanoparticles disturb the nervous system, especially dopaminergic metabolites.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of tyrosine derivatives as peripheral 5HT2A receptor antagonists for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), attributed to excessive fat accumulation in the liver, is reportedly prevalent worldwide. NAFLD is one of the leading causes of chronic liver disease, including non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, and hepatic cellular carcinoma (HCC). The peripheral roles of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5HT) were found to regulate hepatic lipid metabolism. Among serotonin receptor subtypes, 5HT2A receptor is known to regulate hepatic lipid metabolism. Hepatic lipid accumulation and hepatic triglyceride (TG) were reduced in liver-specific 5HT2A receptor knockout (5HT2A receptor LKO) mice upon high-fat diet (HFD) feeding. In the present study, we explored a series of new peripherally acting 5HT2A receptor antagonists. Compound 14a displayed good in vitro activity, with an IC50 value of 0.17 nM. Compound 14a exhibited good microsomal stability, no significant CYP and hERG inhibition, and 5HT receptor subtype selectivity. The brain-to-plasma ratio of 14a was below the lower limit of quantification, indicating limited blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration. HFD-fed 14a treated mice showed decreased liver steatosis and lobular inflammation. These results demonstrate the potential of newly synthesized peripheral 5HT2A receptor antagonists for treating NAFLD.

Neurotoxicological Profiling of Paraquat in Zebrafish Model.

Paraquat is a polar herbicide protecting plant products against invasive species, it requires careful manipulation and restricted usage because of its harmful potentials. Exposure to paraquat triggers oxidative damage in dopaminergic neurons and subsequently causes a behavioral defect in vivo. Thereby, persistent exposure to paraquat is known to increase Parkinson's disease risk by dysregulating dopaminergic systems in humans. Therefore, most studies have focused on the dopaminergic systems to elucidate the neurotoxicological mechanism of paraquat poisoning, and more comprehensive neurochemistry including histaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, and GABAergic systems has remained unclear. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the toxicological potential of paraquat poisoning using a variety of approaches such as toxicokinetic profiles, behavioral effects, neural activity, and broad-spectrum neurochemistry in zebrafish larvae after short-term exposure to paraquat and we performed the molecular modeling approach. Our results showed that paraquat was slowly absorbed in the brain of zebrafish after oral administration of paraquat. In addition, paraquat toxicity resulted in behavioral impairments, namely, reduced motor activity and led to abnormal neural activities in zebrafish larvae. This locomotor deficit came with a dysregulation of dopamine synthesis induced by the inhibition of tyrosine hydroxylase activity, which was also indirectly confirmed by molecular modeling studies. Furthermore, short-term exposure to paraquat also caused simultaneous dysregulation of other neurochemistry including cholinergic and serotonergic systems in zebrafish larvae. The present study suggests that this neurotoxicological profiling could be a useful tool for understanding the brain neurochemistry of neurotoxic agents that might be a potential risk to human and environmental health.

Neurochemical Effects of 4-(2Chloro-4-Fluorobenzyl)-3-(2-Thienyl)-1,2,4-Oxadiazol-5(4H)-One in the Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-Induced Epileptic Seizure Zebrafish Model.

Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological disorders, and it is characterized by spontaneous seizures. In a previous study, we identified 4-(2-chloro-4-fluorobenzyl)-3-(2-thienyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5(4H)-one (GM-90432) as a novel anti-epileptic agent in chemically- or genetically-induced epileptic zebrafish and mouse models. In this study, we investigated the anti-epileptic effects of GM-90432 through neurochemical profiling-based approach to understand the neuroprotective mechanism in a pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced epileptic seizure zebrafish model. GM-90432 effectively improved PTZ-induced epileptic behaviors via upregulation of 5-hydroxytryptamine, 17-ß-estradiol, dihydrotestosterone, progesterone, 5α -dihydroprogesterone, and allopregnanolone levels, and downregulation of normetanephrine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and cortisol levels in brain tissue. GM-90432 also had a protective effect against PTZ-induced oxidative stress and zebrafish death, suggesting that it exhibits biphasic neuroprotective effects via scavenging of reactive oxygen species and anti-epileptic activities in a zebrafish model. In conclusion, our results suggest that neurochemical profiling study could be used to better understand of anti-epileptic mechanism of GM-90432, potentially leading to new drug discovery and development of anti-seizure agents.

Identification of new arylsulfide derivatives as anti-melanogenic agents in a zebrafish model.

A series of aryl sulfide derivatives was synthesized and evaluated for their anti-melanogenic activities. Several compounds, including 3e, 3i and 3q exhibited good anti-melanogenic activities. Among the derivatives, compound 3i showed good inhibitory effects against melanin synthesis and showed no toxicity in reconstituted human eye and skin tissues.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of an ethanol fraction from the Schisandra chinensis baillon hot water extract fermented using Lactobacilius paracasei subsp. tolerans.

Waste management is a major part of the food industry. The present study was designed to utilize the discarded byproduct of Schisandra chinensis Baillon. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of a 30% ethanol fraction (RPG-OM-30E) from the fermented hot water extraction of the Schisandra chinensis Baillon byproduct were investigated using RAW 264.7 cells and zebrafish larvae. RPG-OM-30E reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide production in the RAW 264.7 cells. Additionally, RPG-OM-30E inhibited mRNA expression and protein secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 (Il-6) and interleukin-1ß (Il-1ß). The anti-inflammatory effects of RPG-OM-30E were tested in Tg(mpx::EGFP) i114 zebrafish larvae. Neutrophil migration to a wound site was decreased by RPG-OM-30E. Neutrophil aggregation was also inhibited by RPG-OM-30E after induction of an LPS-induced immune response in the yolk. Finally, the antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of RPG-OM-30E were examined in vivo. Mice with induced oxidative damage recovered from the stress following RPG-OM-30E treatment.

Zebrafish as a Screening Model for Testing the Permeability of Blood-Brain Barrier to Small Molecules.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the permeability of small molecules into the brain via the blood-brain barrier in zebrafish and to investigate the possibility of using this animal model as a screening tool during the early stages of drug discovery. Fifteen compounds were used to understand the permeation into the brain in zebrafish and mice. The ratio of brain-to-plasma concentration was compared between the two animal models. The partition coefficient (Kp,brain), estimated using the concentration ratio at designated times (0.167, 0.25, 0.5, or 2 h) after oral administrations (per os, p.o), ranged from 0.099 to 5.68 in zebrafish and from 0.080 to 11.8 in mice. A correlation was observed between the Kp,brain values obtained from the zebrafish and mice, suggesting that zebrafish can be used to estimate Kp,brain to predict drug penetration in humans. Furthermore, in vivo transport experiments to understand the permeability glycoprotein (P-gp) transporter-mediated behavior of loperamide (LPM) in zebrafish were performed. The zebrafish, Kp,brain,30min of LPM was determined to be 0.099 ± 0.069 after dosing with LPM alone, which increased to 0.180 ± 0.115 after dosing with LPM and tariquidar (TRQ, an inhibitor of P-gp). In mouse, the Kp,brain,30min of LPM was determined to be 0.080 ± 0.004 after dosing with LPM alone and 0.237 ± 0.013 after dosing with LPM and TRQ. These findings indicate that the zebrafish could be used as an effective screening tool during the discovery stages of new drugs to estimate their distribution in the brain.

Minor modifications to ceritinib enhance anti-tumor activity in EML4-ALK positive cancer.

Ceritinib, an ALK inhibitor, was hurriedly approved by the US FDA last year, and demonstrates impressive results in EML4-ALK positive patients. To get a superior ALK inhibitor, we synthesized several ceritinib derivatives with minor modifications to the phenylpiperidine moiety. Biochemical and cellular assays demonstrated the improved activity of KRCA-386 over that of ceritinib. KRCA-386 has superior inhibitory activity against ALK mutants commonly found in crizotinib-resistant patients. Particularly, KRCA-386 has considerably greater activity than ceritinib against the G1202R mutant, one of the most challenging mutations to overcome. The cell cycle analysis indicates that ALK inhibitors induce G1/S arrest, resulting in apoptosis. The in vivo xenograft data also demonstrate that KRCA-386 is significantly better than ceritinib. KRCA-386 dosed at 25 mpk caused 105% tumor growth inhibition (TGI) compared to 72% TGI with ceritinib dosed at 25 mpk. (n = 8, P = 0.010) The kinase profiling assay revealed that several kinases, which are known to be critical for tumor growth, are inhibited by KRCA-386, but not by ceritinib. We anticipate that this characteristic of KRCA-386 enhances its in vivo efficacy. In addition, KRCA-386 shows excellent blood brain barrier penetration compared to ceritinib. These results suggest that KRCA-386 could be useful for crizotinib-resistant patients with brain metastases.

In vitro permeability, pharmacokinetics and brain uptake of WAY-100635 and FCWAY in rats using liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry.

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a sensitive non-invasive imaging technique. To reduce imaging measurements of defects, there is a demand for proper LC-ESI-MS/MS method to carry out with its specificity and sensitivity. This study describes a rapid and simple liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem-MS/MS (LC-ESI-MS/MS) method for determination of both PET tracers: N-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]-N-(2-pyridyl)cyclohexanecarboxamide (WAY-100635) and 4-fluoro-N-[2-[4-(2-methoxylphenyl)-1-piperazino]ethyl]-N-(2-pyridyl)cyclohexanecarboxamide (FCWAY). Both target compounds were prepared by one-step protein precipitation with acetonitrile and methanol (1:1, v/v), and analyzed using a C18 column. This simple method has an excellent linearity, selectivity and sensitivity. Precision and accuracy values for the intra-day and inter-day validation were below 12%. The limit of quantification (LOQ) for both target compounds was defined as 1 ng/mL in plasma and 5 ng/mL in brain homogenate. The stability of both compounds is considered stable under a various experimental conditions. The in vitro MDR-MDCK cell permeability showed the both compounds have high permeability (Papp, A→B ≥ 20 × 10(-6 )cm/s) and low efflux ratio (≤2.0). Brain to blood (AUCbrain/AUCblood) distribution ratios in rats were 3.15 ± 0.42 for WAY-100635 and 2.20 ± 0.34 for FCWAY, respectively, and these results suggest that LC-ESI-MS/MS method might be a supplementary way for the identifying and understanding of radiopharmaceuticals.

Determination of 2-(3-benzoyl)-4-hydroxy-1,1-dioxo-2H-1,2-benzothiazine-2-yl-1-phenylethanone by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

2-(3-Benzoyl)-4-hydroxy-1,1-dioxo-2H-1,2-benzothiazine-2-yl-1-phenylethanone (KR-66344), a 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11ß-HSD1) inhibitor, is newly developed for the control of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and metabolic syndrome. A method for the determination of KR-66344 in rat plasma was developed by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS-MS) to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of KR-66344. Plasma samples were processed by a liquid-liquid extraction method with ethyl acetate and introduced onto the LC-MS-MS system. The analyte and imipramine (internal standard) were analyzed by multiple reaction monitoring based on transitions at m/z 420.1 → 105.0 and 282.2 → 86.0, respectively. The calibration curve was linear (r = 0.9993) over the concentration range of 1.0-1,000 ng/mL. The mean recovery values for KR-66344 and imipramine were 83.8 and 86.2%, respectively. The mean inter-day and intra-day assay precision values were 3.9 and 2.4%, respectively. KR-66344 was stable under various handling and storage conditions. This developed method was applied to a pharmacokinetic study after the oral administration of KR-66344 in rats. The concentration of KR-66344 was readily measurable in rat plasma up to 24 h post-dose after an oral administration, suggesting that current assay is applicable to pharmacokinetic studies for KR-66344.

Pharmacokinetic characterization of the novel TAZ modulator TM-25659 using a multicompartment kinetic model in rats and a possibility of its drug-drug interactions in humans.

This study evaluated the pharmacokinetics of the novel TAZ modulator TM-25659 in rats following intravenous and oral administration at dose ranges of 0.5-5 mg/kg and 2-10 mg/kg, respectively. Plasma protein binding, plasma stability, liver microsomal stability, CYP inhibition, and transport in Caco-2 cells were also evaluated. After intravenous injection, systemic clearance, steady-state volumes of distribution, and half-life were dose-independent, with values ranging from 0.434-0.890 mL · h(-1) · kg(-1), 2.02-4.22 mL/kg, and 4.60-7.40 h, respectively. Mean absolute oral bioavailability was 50.9% and was not dose dependent. Recovery of TM-25659 was 43.6% in bile and <1% in urine. In pharmacokinetic modeling studies, the three-compartment (3C) model was appropriate for understanding these parameters in rats. TM-25659 was stable in plasma. Plasma protein binding was approximately 99.2%, and was concentration-independent. TM-25659 showed high permeation of Caco-2 cells and did not appear to inhibit CYP450. TM-25659 was metabolized in phase I and II steps in rat liver microsomes. In conclusion, the pharmacokinetics of TM-25659 was characterized for intravenous and oral administration at doses of 0.5-5 and 2-10 mg/kg, respectively. TM-25659 was eliminated primarily by hepatic metabolism and urinary excretion.

Determination of 5-HT receptor antagonists, MEFWAY and MPPF using liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry in rat plasma and brain tissue.

A simple, selective, and sensitive liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) method was validated for the determination of 4-fluoromethyl-N-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]-N-(2-pyridyl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide (MEFWAY) and 4-fluoro-N-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]-N-(2-pyridyl)benzamide (MPPF) in rat plasma and brain samples, respectively. Plasma and brain samples were extracted with a mixture of acetonitrile and methanol (1:1, v/v) and then separated on a C(18) column (Gemini 3µm 110Å, 50×2.00mm ID, Phenomenex, USA). Quantitation was performed using LC-ESI-MS/MS in multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) mode with positive ion electrospray ionization (ESI). The limit of quantification (LOQ) of 5ng/mL and 1ng/mL were obtained in 50µL brain homogenate and plasma, respectively. The analytical linear ranges of this method were 1-4000ng/mL in plasma and 5-4000ng/mL in brain homogenate with a correlation coefficients (R(2)) greater than 0.9993. The intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy values were within the assay validation guideline (lower than 13.0%). The analytes in plasma and brain samples were stable after three freeze-thaw cycles, long-term storage (one month at -80°C), and short-term (4h) storage at room temperature. The present method was successfully applied to plasma-brain pharmacokinetic studies to investigate brain penetration of a single dose of MEFWAY and MPPF in rats.

Pharmacokinetic characterization of decursinol derived from Angelica gigas Nakai in rats.

Decursinol is a major coumarin derived from the roots of Angelica gigas and has various pharmacological effects against inflammation, angiogenesis, nociceptive pain and Alzheimer's disease. In vitro and in vivo studies were conducted to characterize the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of decursinol. Decursinol exhibited high stability to oxidative and glucuronic metabolism in human and rat liver microsomes. In Caco-2 cell monolayers, decursinol showed high permeability (>14 × 10(-6) cm/s) at all tested concentrations in the absorptive direction, which saturated at 100 µM. Secretion increased in a concentration-dependent manner, with an efflux ratio of more than 2 at 50 µM, indicating the participation of an active efflux transporter such as P-glycoprotein, multidrug resistance protein 2 or breast cancer resistance protein. The fraction of decursinol not bound to plasma proteins was 25-26% in the rat and 9-18% in humans. In human plasma, but not rat plasma, the percentage of unbound decursinol was concentration dependent. Following intravenous administration in rats, non-linear elimination of decursinol was observed with K(m) and V(max) values of 2.1 µg/mL and 2.5 mg·h(-1)·kg(-1), respectively. Following oral administration, decursinol exhibited high oral bioavailability (>45%) and rapid absorption (T(max), 0.4-0.9 h) over the dose range studied. In addition, dose-dependent absorption and elimination were observed at 20 mg/kg.

Determination of a dipeptidyl peptidase IV agonist, ß-aminoacyl containing thiazolidine derivatives (KR-66223) in rat plasma by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

A sensitive liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed for a novel dipeptidyl peptidase IV agonist (DDP-IV) agonist, KR-66223, in rat plasma. It involves liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) followed by HPLC separation and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. KR-66223 and imipramine (IS) was separated on Gemini-NX C18 column with mixture of acetonitrile-ammonium formate (10mM) (90:10, v/v) as mobile phase. The ion transitions monitored were m/z 553.2→206.2 for KR-66223, m/z 281.3→86.1 for imipramine in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. The linear ranges of the assay were 0.003-10µg/ml with a correlation coefficient (R(2)) greater than 0.99 and the lower limit of quantification was 3ng/ml. The average recovery was 78.9% and 87.1% from rat plasma for KR-66223 and imipramine, respectively. The coefficients of variation of intra- and inter-assay were 3.9-14.4% and the relative error was 0.8-11.5%. The method was validated and successfully applied to the pharmacokinetic study of KR-66223 in rat.

Preclinical pharmacokinetics of PDE-310, a novel PDE4 inhibitor.

A novel phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor, 2-aryl-7(3',4'-dialkoxyphenyl)-pyrazolo[1,5-alpha] pyrimidine (PDE-310), has been synthesized for the treatment of respiratory diseases. We conducted in vitro and in vivo studies to characterize the pharmacokinetics of PDE-310. The high liver microsomal stability and low inhibitory potency against CYP isoforms of PDE-310 suggested a low first-pass effect and high bioavailability. PDE-310 exhibited high Caco-2 cell permeability in the absorptive direction (apparent permeability coefficients, ∼20 × 10(-6) cm/s), with higher transport in the secretory direction, giving efflux ratios of 3.9 and 2.6 at 5 and 10 µM, respectively. In addition, the high efflux ratio and improved absorption on treatment with efflux transporter inhibitors such as verapamil and MK-571 indicated the involvement of P-gp, BCRP and MRP2 in intestinal transport. PDE-310 bound strongly to human plasma proteins, whereas significantly more PDE-310 (27-34%) was free in rat plasma. Following intravenous administration, nonlinear elimination of PDE-310 was observed at the tested dose ranges (K(m), 0.87 µg/mL; V(max), 0.3 mg·h(-1)·kg(-1)). Following oral PDE-310 administration, dose-normalized AUC and T(max) increased significantly in a dose-dependent manner. PDE-310 exhibited high oral bioavailability (>70%) and was distributed well to various tissues except brain and testis.

Dose-independent pharmacokinetics of a new peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ agonist, KR-62980, in Sprague-Dawley rats and ICR mice.

The pharmacokinetics of a novel peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ agonist, KR-62980, were characterized in vitro with respect to liver metabolic stability, cell permeability, and plasma protein binding and in vivo using Sprague-Dawley rats and ICR mice. The metabolic half-life of 0.1-10 µM KR-62980 was 11.5-15.2 min in rat liver microsomes and 25.8-28.8 min in human liver microsomes. KR-62980 showed high permeability across MDCK cell monolayers, with apparent permeability coefficients of 20.4 × 10(-6) to 30.8 × 10(-6) cm/sec. The plasma protein binding rate of KR-62980 was 89.4%, and most was bound to serum albumin. After intravenous administration of KR-62980 (2 mg/kg), the systemic clearance was 2.50 L/h/kg, and the volume of distribution at steady-state was 9.16 L/kg. The bioavailability after oral administration was approximately 60.9%. The dose-normalized AUC values were 0.50 ± 0.09, 0.41 ± 0.20, and 0.62 ± 0.08 h · µg/mL after oral administration of 2, 5, and 10 mg/kg KR-62980, respectively, showing no dose-dependency. The in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters in ICR mice were also dose independent. These data suggest that KR-62980 is not significantly dose dependent in rats or mice, although it may disappear rapidly from the systemic circulation via metabolism in the liver.

Postoperative retroperitoneal hematoma following transforaminal percutaneous endoscopic lumbar discectomy.

OBJECT: The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the clinical characteristics of postoperative retroperitoneal hematoma (RPH) following transforaminal percutaneous endoscopic lumbar discectomy (PELD) and to discuss how to prevent the complication of unintended hemorrhage. METHODS: The medical records of 412 consecutive patients treated with transforaminal PELD between January 2005 and May 2007 were reviewed. A total of 4 patients (0.97%) experienced symptomatic postoperative RPH. The clinical outcomes were evaluated using the visual analog scale and the Oswestry Disability Index. RESULTS: The common symptom in all patients with a hematoma was inguinal pain. The mean hematoma volume was 527.9 ml (range 53.3-1274.1 ml). Two patients with massive diffuse-type RPHs compressing the intraabdominal structures required open hematoma evacuation performed by general surgeons, and the other 2 patients with small, localized RPHs of < 100 ml were treated conservatively. The mean follow-up period was 21.3 months (range 13-29 months). The mean visual analog scale score for radicular leg pain improved from 7.6 to 1.8 and that for back pain improved from 4.3 to 2. The mean Oswestry Disability Index improved from 58.8 to 9.1%. The preoperative symptoms improved after the second treatment without significant neurological sequelae in all patients. CONCLUSIONS: Although transforaminal PELD is a minimally invasive and safe procedure, the possibility of RPH should be kept in mind. Adequate technical and anatomical considerations are important to avoid this unusual hemorrhagic complication, especially in the patient with underlying medical problems or previous operative scarring. A high index of suspicion and early detection is also important to avoid the progression of the hematoma.