Maternal antibody repertoire restriction modulates the development of lupus-like disease in BXSB offspring.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease that has a strong preference for women of child-bearing age. Maternal factors play an essential role in shaping the immune system of the newborn, yet it is unknown whether maternal factors could modulate the development of SLE in the offspring. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is an enzyme required for somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination. Given that IgG and IgA isotypes account for the vast majority of passive immunity in rodents, our previously established AID-deficient BXSB mice provide a model in which maternal antibodies that can be transferred to the offspring are greatly diminished and have restricted repertoire. In this study, we compared genotypically identical mice born to either AID-sufficient dams or AID-deficient dams and evaluated the effects of maternal antibodies in disease progression. Offspring from knockout dams developed disease at a faster rate, as shown by more severe nephritis and elevated pathogenic autoantibodies compared to their counterparts born to wild-type dams. When immune competent pups were cross fostered onto AID-deficient dams, these mice exhibited more severe disease characteristics, including exacerbated lupus nephritis, increased levels of circulating antinuclear antibodies, and more activated T cells. These results suggest that a protective antibody effect contributes to the modulation of SLE progression in postnatal period. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of maternal antibodies in programming the immune system and altering SLE development in offspring.

Use of Genome Editing Techniques to Produce Transgenic Farm Animals.

Recombinant proteins are essential for the treatment and diagnosis of clinical human ailments. The availability and biological activity of recombinant proteins is heavily influenced by production platforms. Conventional production platforms such as yeast, bacteria, and mammalian cells have biological and economical challenges. Transgenic livestock species have been explored as an alternative production platform for recombinant proteins, predominantly through milk secretion; the strategy has been demonstrated to produce large quantities of biologically active proteins. The major limitation of utilizing livestock species as bioreactors has been efforts required to alter the genome of livestock. Advancements in the genome editing field have drastically improved the ability to genetically engineer livestock species. Specifically, genome editing tools such as the CRISPR/Cas9 system have lowered efforts required to generate genetically engineered livestock, thus minimizing restrictions on the type of genetic modification in livestock. In this review, we discuss characteristics of transgenic animal bioreactors and how the use of genome editing systems enhances design and availability of the animal models.

Engrafting Horse Immune Cells into Mouse Hosts for the Study of the Acute Equine Immune Responses.

Immunological studies in the horse are frequently hampered by lack of environmental control, complicated study design, and ethical concerns when performing high risk studies. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the utility of a xenograft model for studying acute equine immune responses. Immunocompromised non obese diabetic (NOD). sudden combined immunodeficiency (scid).gamma-/- (NSG) mice were engrafted with either equine peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) or equine bone marrow to determine an optimal protocol for equine lymphocyte engraftment. We found that both PBL and bone marrow grafts populated the host mice successfully. Bone marrow transplants were technically more challenging and required further processing to retard graft versus host disease. Graft vs host disease was apparent at 28 days post-PBL transfer and 56 days post-bone marrow transfer. The results of these studies support the use of mouse hosts to study acute equine immune responses and that different engraftment techniques can be used depending on the experimental design.

Horses affected by EPM have increased sCD14 compared to healthy horses.

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a debilitating neurologic disease affecting horses across the Americas. Gaps in understanding the inflammatory immune response in EPM-affected horses create difficulties with diagnosis and treatment, subsequently negatively impacting the prognosis of affected horses. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate circulating levels of the inflammatory immune marker soluble CD14 (sCD14), in horses with EPM (n = 7) and determine if they differed from healthy neurologically normal horses (n = 6). Paired sera and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were analyzed for sCD14. Inclusion criteria for EPM horses consisted of the presence of neurologic signs consistent with EPM, Sarcocystis neurona surface antigens 2, 4/3 (SnSAG 2, 4/3) ELISA serum: CSF antibody ratio ≤ 100, and a postmortem diagnosis of EPM. Control horses were neurologically normal, healthy horses with SnSAG 2, 4/3 ELISA serum: CSF antibody ratios of > 100. Serum anti-Sarcocystis neurona antibodies indicate that healthy control horses were exposed to S. neurona but resistant to developing clinical EPM. EPM cases had significantly greater concentrations of sCD14 in CSF samples compared to control horses and increased serum sCD14 concentrations. A positive correlation between sCD14 serum and CSF concentrations was observed in EPM-affected horses but not healthy horses. Soluble CD14 is an inflammatory marker, and the study results suggest it is elevated in EPM patients. When performed in conjunction with clinical evaluation and standard antibody testing, there may be potential for sCD14 to be utilized as a correlate for EPM.

Interferon gamma protective against Sarcocystis neurona encephalitis in susceptible murine model.

Sarcocystis neurona is the predominant etiological agent of the infectious equine neurologic disease, equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), which is prevalent in the United States. A wealth of knowledge about S. neurona biology and its life cycle has accumulated over the last several decades. However, much remains unknown about the aberrant equine host's immune response to S. neurona and the relatively high prevalence of exposure to the protozoa but relatively infrequent occurrence of clinical neurologic disease. Mouse models simulating EPM are commonly used to study the disease due to numerous challenges associated with studying the disease in horses. The critical role of the cytokine, interferon gamma (IFNγ), in protection against S. neurona encephalitis has been well established as Ifnγ-/- mice are highly susceptible to S. neurona encephalitis. However, there are discrepancies in the literature regarding S. neurona disease susceptibility in lymphocyte deficient mice, lacking T-lymphocytes and their associated Ifnγ production. In the current study, we investigated S. neurona encephalitis susceptibility in 2 genetically different strains of lymphocyte null mice, C57Bl/6 (B6).scid and Balb/c.scid. The B6.scid mouse was determined to be susceptible to S. neurona encephalitis as 100 % of infected mice developed neurologic disease within 60 days post infection (DPI). The Balb/c.scid mouse was nearly disease resistant as only 10 % of mice developed neurologic disease 60 DPI. Encephalitis was histologically demonstrable and S. neurona was identified in cerebellar samples collected from B6.scid but absent in Balb/c.scid mice. To further investigate the importance of T-lymphocyte derived Ifnγ, T- lymphocytes were adoptively transferred into B6.scid mice. The adoptive transfer of Ifnγ competent T- lymphocytes offered complete protection against S. neurona encephalitis but transfer of Ifnγ deficient T- lymphocytes did not with 100 % of these recipient mice succumbing to S. neruona encephalitis. Histological analysis of collected cerebellar samples confirmed the presences of S. neurona and encephalitis in recipient mice that developed neurologic disease. These studies show that the background strain is critical in studying SCID susceptibility to S. neurona disease and suggest a protective role of Ifnγ producing T- lymphocytes in S. neurona encephalitis susceptible mice.

Abrogated AID Function Prolongs Survival and Diminishes Renal Pathology in the BXSB Mouse Model of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus.

Almost a decade has passed since the approval of belimumab, an mAb directed against B lymphocyte stimulation and the first targeted therapy approved for systemic lupus erythematous (SLE) in over 50 y. Although well tolerated, the efficacy of belimumab remains limited and is not labeled for patients suffering from nephritis, the leading cause of patient mortality. We sought to explore alternative targets of autoreactive B lymphocytes through manipulation of affinity maturation. The BXSB/MpJ mouse, a well-established model of human SLE, develops elevated antinuclear Abs and immune complex-mediated nephritis along with other manifestations of SLE-like disease. To limit interfering with critical background genetics, we used CRISPR-Cas9 to disrupt activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID; Aicda) directly in BXSB zygotes. Homozygous null mice demonstrated significantly prolonged survival compared with wild-type. Although mice continued to develop plasma cells, splenic follicular structure was restored, and renal pathology was reduced. Mice developed expanded germinal center B lymphocyte populations as in other models of AID deficiency as well as increased populations of CD73+ B lymphocytes. Treatment with the small molecule inhibitor of RAD51, 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid, resulted in minimal changes in disease markers in BXSB mice. The prolonged survival in AID-deficient BXSB mice appears attributed primarily to the reduced renal pathology, warranting further exploration, as current therapeutics targeting lupus nephritis are limited and, thus, in great demand.

Sarcocystis neurona-Induced Myeloencephalitis Relapse Following Anticoccidial Treatment.

Sarcocystis neurona is a ubiquitous parasite in the eastern United States, which is the principal causative agent in the neurologic disorder equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM). While much is known about this protozoa's life cycle in its natural host, the opossum (Didelphis virginiana), little is known of how it acts in the aberrant equine host, which displays a high incidence of exposure with a relatively low rate of morbidity. For this study, we employed the popular interferon gamma knockout mouse model to determine the potential for recrudescence of S. neurona infection after treatment with the anticoccidial drug diclazuril. Mice were infected with S. neurona merozoites, and 7-days post-infection (DPI) they were treated with diclazuril for 30 or 60 days or not treated at all. All infected non-treated mice developed neurologic signs consistent with S. neurona infection within 30 DPI. All diclazuril-treated infected mice remained clinically normal while on treatment but developed neurologic signs within 60 days of treatment cessation. Histological examination of cerebella from all infected mice demonstrated characteristic lesions of S. neurona infection, regardless of treatment status. Cerebellar samples collected from infected treated mice, displaying neurologic signs, produced viable S. neurona in culture. However, cerebellar samples collected from infected and neurologically normal mice at the end of a 30-day treatment period did not produce viable S. neurona in culture. Analysis of the humoral immune response in infected mice showed that during treatment IgM antibody production decreased, suggesting the organism was sequestered from immune surveillance. The cessation of treatment and subsequent development of neurologic disease resulted in increased IgM antibody production, suggesting recognition by the immune system at that time. Based on the study results the authors propose that diclazuril was able to inhibit the replication and migration of S. neurona but not fully eliminate the parasite, suggesting recrudescence of infection after treatment is possible.

RAPID COMMUNICATION: TLR4 expressed but with reduced functionality on equine B lymphocytes.

Varying susceptibility exists among mammalian species to the development of potentially fatal endotoxemia due to gram-negative bacteria molecular component, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is responsible for LPS-associated immune response and is expressed on numerous immune cells including B lymphocytes. TLR4 is expressed in a functional form on mouse B lymphocytes, a species much less susceptible to endotoxemia compared with humans who are highly sensitive to endotoxin. Humans possess B lymphocytes that are not responsive to LPS. Likewise, horses are highly susceptible to endotoxemia but the expression and function of TLR4 on horse B lymphocytes is not known. Colic, the major cause of mortality in horses, is often complicated by resultant endotoxemia. The objective of this study was to determine the expression and function of TLR4 on equine B lymphocytes. Lymphocytes were isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells that were collected from six horses, and the expression and function of TLR4 was analyzed for each horse. Flow cytometry results indicate TLR4 is expressed on horse B lymphocytes but stimulation with LPS did not alter this expression (P = 0.99) compared with unstimulated B lymphocytes after 24 h. After 72 h of in vitro LPS stimulation, analysis of cell proliferation dye by flow cytometry demonstrated that equine B lymphocytes did not proliferate, while mouse B lymphocytes predictably did. Furthermore, the total number of LPS stimulated equine B lymphocytes did not significantly differ from unstimulated cells after 72 h of culture (P = 0.92). Horse lymphocytes exhibited no significant differences in the measured TLR4 signaling pathway genes (TLR4, IL-10, IL-6, IFNß, and TNFα) when expression was compared with LPS stimulated vs. unstimulated cells. In conclusion, while TLR4 is expressed on horse B lymphocytes, it appears minimally responsive to LPS in vitro, similar to results seen in human B lymphocytes. While further studies are still needed, our work reveals a potential link between B lymphocyte TLR4 expression and endotoxin sensitivity.

Control of lupus nephritis by changes of gut microbiota.

BACKGROUND: Systemic lupus erythematosus, characterized by persistent inflammation, is a complex autoimmune disorder with no known cure. Immunosuppressants used in treatment put patients at a higher risk of infections. New knowledge of disease modulators, such as symbiotic bacteria, can enable fine-tuning of parts of the immune system, rather than suppressing it altogether. RESULTS: Dysbiosis of gut microbiota promotes autoimmune disorders that damage extraintestinal organs. Here we report a role of gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of renal dysfunction in lupus. Using a classical model of lupus nephritis, MRL/lpr, we found a marked depletion of Lactobacillales in the gut microbiota. Increasing Lactobacillales in the gut improved renal function of these mice and prolonged their survival. We used a mixture of 5 Lactobacillus strains (Lactobacillus oris, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus johnsonii, and Lactobacillus gasseri), but L. reuteri and an uncultured Lactobacillus sp. accounted for most of the observed effects. Further studies revealed that MRL/lpr mice possessed a "leaky" gut, which was reversed by increased Lactobacillus colonization. Lactobacillus treatment contributed to an anti-inflammatory environment by decreasing IL-6 and increasing IL-10 production in the gut. In the circulation, Lactobacillus treatment increased IL-10 and decreased IgG2a that is considered to be a major immune deposit in the kidney of MRL/lpr mice. Inside the kidney, Lactobacillus treatment also skewed the Treg-Th17 balance towards a Treg phenotype. These beneficial effects were present in female and castrated male mice, but not in intact males, suggesting that the gut microbiota controls lupus nephritis in a sex hormone-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS: This work demonstrates essential mechanisms on how changes of the gut microbiota regulate lupus-associated immune responses in mice. Future studies are warranted to determine if these results can be replicated in human subjects.

Genetic and Small Molecule Disruption of the AID/RAD51 Axis Similarly Protects Nonobese Diabetic Mice from Type 1 Diabetes through Expansion of Regulatory B Lymphocytes.

B lymphocytes play a key role in type 1 diabetes (T1D) development by serving as a subset of APCs preferentially supporting the expansion of autoreactive pathogenic T cells. As a result of their pathogenic importance, B lymphocyte-targeted therapies have received considerable interest as potential T1D interventions. Unfortunately, the B lymphocyte-directed T1D interventions tested to date failed to halt ß cell demise. IgG autoantibodies marking humans at future risk for T1D indicate that B lymphocytes producing them have undergone the affinity-maturation processes of class switch recombination and, possibly, somatic hypermutation. This study found that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated ablation of the activation-induced cytidine deaminase gene required for class switch recombination/somatic hypermutation induction inhibits T1D development in the NOD mouse model. The activation-induced cytidine deaminase protein induces genome-wide DNA breaks that, if not repaired through RAD51-mediated homologous recombination, result in B lymphocyte death. Treatment with the RAD51 inhibitor 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2, 2'-disulfonic acid also strongly inhibited T1D development in NOD mice. The genetic and small molecule-targeting approaches expanded CD73+ B lymphocytes that exert regulatory activity suppressing diabetogenic T cell responses. Hence, an initial CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genetic modification approach has identified the AID/RAD51 axis as a target for a potentially clinically translatable pharmacological approach that can block T1D development by converting B lymphocytes to a disease-inhibitory CD73+ regulatory state.

Interferon-γ Limits Diabetogenic CD8+ T-Cell Effector Responses in Type 1 Diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes development in the NOD mouse model is widely reported to be dependent on high-level production by autoreactive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), generally considered a proinflammatory cytokine. However, IFN-γ can also participate in tolerance-induction pathways, indicating it is not solely proinflammatory. This study addresses how IFN-γ can suppress activation of diabetogenic CD8+ T cells. CD8+ T cells transgenically expressing the diabetogenic AI4 T-cell receptor adoptively transferred disease to otherwise unmanipulated NOD.IFN-γnull , but not standard NOD, mice. AI4 T cells only underwent vigorous intrasplenic proliferation in NOD.IFN-γnull recipients. Disease-protective IFN-γ could be derived from any lymphocyte source and suppressed diabetogenic CD8+ T-cell responses both directly and through an intermediary nonlymphoid cell population. Suppression was not dependent on regulatory T cells, but was associated with increased inhibitory STAT1 to STAT4 expression levels in pathogenic AI4 T cells. Importantly, IFN-γ exposure during activation reduced the cytotoxicity of human-origin type 1 diabetes-relevant autoreactive CD8+ T cells. Collectively, these results indicate that rather than marking the most proinflammatory lymphocytes in diabetes development, IFN-γ production could represent an attempted limitation of pathogenic CD8+ T-cell activation. Thus, great care should be taken when designing possible diabetic intervention approaches modulating IFN-γ production.

Interleukin 6 Accelerates Mortality by Promoting the Progression of the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-Like Disease of BXSB.Yaa Mice.

IL6 is a multifunctional cytokine that drives terminal B cell differentiation and secretion of immunoglobulins. IL6 also cooperates with IL21 to promote differentiation of CD4+ T follicular helper cells (TFH). Elevated serum levels of IL6 correlate with disease flares in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We previously reported that IL21 produced by TFH plays a critical role in the development of the SLE-like disease of BXSB.Yaa mice. To examine the possible contributions of IL6 to disease, we compared disease parameters in IL6-deficient and IL6-competent BXSB.Yaa mice. We report that survival of IL6-deficient BXSB.Yaa mice was significantly prolonged in association with significant reductions in a variety of autoimmune manifestations. Moreover, B cells stimulated by co-engagement of TLR7 and B cell receptor (BCR) produced high levels of IL6 that was further augmented by stimulation with Type I interferon (IFN1). Importantly, the frequencies of TFH and serum levels of IL21 were significantly reduced in IL6-deficient mice. These findings suggest that high-level production of IL6 by B cells induced by integrated signaling from the IFN1 receptor, TLR7 and BCR promotes the differentiation of IL21-secreting TFH in a signaling sequence that drives the lethal autoimmune disease of BXSB.Yaa mice.

B-lymphocytes expressing an Ig specificity recognizing the pancreatic ß-cell autoantigen peripherin are potent contributors to type 1 diabetes development in NOD mice.

While the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic ß-cells underlying type 1 diabetes (1D) development is ultimately mediated by T-cells in NOD mice and also likely humans, B-lymphocytes play an additional key pathogenic role. It appears expression of plasma membrane bound immunoglobulin (Ig) molecules that efficiently capture ß-cell antigens allows autoreactive B-lymphocytes bypassing normal tolerance induction processes to be the subset of antigen presenting cells most efficiently activating diabetogenic T-cells. NOD mice transgenically expressing Ig molecules recognizing antigens that are (insulin) or not (hen egg lysozyme; HEL) expressed by ß-cells have proven useful in dissecting the developmental basis of diabetogenic B-lymphocytes. However, these transgenic Ig specificities were originally selected for their ability to recognize insulin or HEL as foreign, rather than autoantigens. Thus, we generated and characterized NOD mice transgenically expressing an Ig molecule representative of a large proportion of naturally occurring islet-infiltrating B-lymphocytes in NOD mice recognizing the neuronal antigen peripherin. Transgenic peripherin autoreactive B-lymphocytes infiltrate NOD pancreatic islets, acquire an activated proliferative phenotype, and potently support accelerated T1D development. These results support the concept of neuronal autoimmunity as a pathogenic feature of T1D, and targeting such responses could ultimately provide an effective disease intervention approach.

Sudden acquired retinal degeneration syndrome (SARDS) - a review and proposed strategies toward a better understanding of pathogenesis, early diagnosis, and therapy.

Sudden acquired retinal degeneration syndrome (SARDS) is one of the leading causes of currently incurable canine vision loss diagnosed by veterinary ophthalmologists. The disease is characterized by acute onset of blindness due to loss of photoreceptor function, extinguished electroretinogram with an initially normal appearing ocular fundus, and mydriatic pupils which are slowly responsive to bright white light, unresponsive to red, but responsive to blue light stimulation. In addition to blindness, the majority of affected dogs also show systemic abnormalities suggestive of hyperadrenocorticism, such as polyphagia with resulting obesity, polyuria, polydipsia, and a subclinical hepatopathy. The pathogenesis of SARDS is unknown, but neuroendocrine and autoimmune mechanisms have been suggested. Therapies that target these disease pathways have been proposed to reverse or prevent further vision loss in SARDS-affected dogs, but these treatments are controversial. In November 2014, the American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists' Vision for Animals Foundation organized and funded a Think Tank to review the current knowledge and recently proposed ideas about disease mechanisms and treatment of SARDS. These panel discussions resulted in recommendations for future research strategies toward a better understanding of pathogenesis, early diagnosis, and potential therapy for this condition.

IL-21-driven neoplasms in SJL mice mimic some key features of human angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma.

SJL/J mice exhibit a high incidence of mature B-cell lymphomas that require CD4(+) T cells for their development. We found that their spleens and lymph nodes contained increased numbers of germinal centers and T follicular helper (TFH) cells. Microarray analyses revealed high levels of transcripts encoding IL-21 associated with high levels of serum IL-21. We developed IL-21 receptor (IL21R)-deficient Swiss Jim Lambart (SJL) mice to determine the role of IL-21 in disease. These mice had reduced numbers of TFH cells, lower serum levels of IL-21, and few germinal center B cells, and they did not develop B-cell tumors, suggesting IL-21-dependent B-cell lymphomagenesis. We also noted a series of features common to SJL disease and human angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL), a malignancy of TFH cells. Gene expression analyses of AITL showed that essentially all cases expressed elevated levels of transcripts for IL21, IL21R, and a series of genes associated with TFH cell development and function. These results identify a mouse model with features of AITL and suggest that patients with the disease might benefit from therapeutic interventions that interrupt IL-21 signaling.