Estimation of optimal number of gates in dual gated 18F-FDG cardiac PET.

Gating of positron emission tomography images has been shown to reduce the motion effects, especially when imaging small targets, such as coronary plaques. However, the selection of optimal number of gates for gating remains a challenge. Selecting too high number of gates results in a loss of signal-to-noise ratio, while too low number of gates does remove only part of the motion. Here, we introduce a respiratory-cardiac motion model to determine the optimal number of respiratory and cardiac gates. We evaluate the model using a realistic heart phantom and data from 12 cardiac patients (47-77 years, 64.5 on average). To demonstrate the benefits of our model, we compared it with an existing respiratory model. Based on our study, the optimal number of gates was determined to be five respiratory and four cardiac gates in the phantom and patient studies. In the phantom study, the diameter of the most active hot spot was reduced by 24% in the dual gated images compared to non-gated images. In the patient study, the thickness of myocardium wall was reduced on average by 21%. In conclusion, the motion model can be used for estimating the optimal number of respiratory and cardiac gates for dual gating.

Podocyte apoptosis is prevented by blocking the Toll-like receptor pathway.

High serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activity in normoalbuminuric patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) predicts the progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN), but the mechanisms behind this remain unclear. We observed that treatment of cultured human podocytes with sera from normoalbuminuric T1D patients with high LPS activity downregulated 3-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK1), an activator of the Akt cell survival pathway, and induced apoptosis. Knockdown of PDK1 in cultured human podocytes inhibited antiapoptotic Akt pathway, stimulated proapoptotic p38 MAPK pathway, and increased apoptosis demonstrating an antiapoptotic role for PDK1 in podocytes. Interestingly, PDK1 was downregulated in the glomeruli of diabetic rats and patients with type 2 diabetes before the onset of proteinuria, further suggesting that reduced expression of PDK1 associates with podocyte injury and development of DN. Treatment of podocytes in vitro and mice in vivo with LPS reduced PDK1 expression and induced apoptosis, which were prevented by inhibiting the Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway with the immunomodulatory agent GIT27. Our data show that LPS downregulates the cell survival factor PDK1 and induces podocyte apoptosis, and that blocking the TLR pathway with GIT27 may provide a non-nephrotoxic means to prevent the progression of DN.

Controlled delivery of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor by a single tetracycline-inducible AAV vector.

An autoregulated tetracycline-inducible recombinant adeno-associated viral vector (rAAV-pTet(bidi)ON) utilizing the rtTAM2 reverse tetracycline transactivator (rAAV-rtTAM2) was used to conditionally express the human GDNF cDNA. Doxycycline, a tetracycline analog, induced a time- and dose-dependent release of GDNF in vitro in human glioma cells infected with rAAV-rtTAM2 serotype 2 virus. Introducing the Woodchuck hepatitis virus posttranscriptional regulatory element (WPRE) downstream to the rtTAM2 coding sequence, resulted in a more rapid induction and a higher basal expression level. In vivo, 8 weeks after a single injection of the rAAV-rtTAM2-GDNF vector encapsidated into AAV serotype 1 capsids in the rat striatum, the GDNF protein level was 60 pg/mg tissue in doxycycline-treated animals whereas in untreated animals, it was undistinguishable from the endogenous level ( approximately 4 pg/mg tissue). However, a residual GDNF expression in the uninduced animals was evidenced by a sensitive immunohistochemical staining. As compared to rAAV1-rtTAM2-GDNF, the rAAV1-rtTAM2-WPRE-GDNF vector expressed a similar concentration of GDNF in the induced state (with doxycycline) but a basal level (without doxycycline) approximately 2.5-fold higher than the endogenous striatal level. As a proof for biological activity, for both vectors, downregulation of tyrosine hydroxylase was evidenced in dopaminergic terminals of doxycycline-treated but not untreated animals. In conclusion, the rAAV1-rtTAM2 vector which expressed biologically relevant doses of GDNF in the striatum in response to doxycycline with a basal level undistinguishable from the endogenous striatal level, as measured by quantitative ELISA assay, constitutes an interesting tool for local conditional transgenesis.

Efficient early and sustained transduction of human fetal mesencephalon using adeno-associated virus type 2 vectors.

The success of transplantation of human fetal mesencephalic tissue into the putamen of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) is still limited by the poor survival of the graft. In animal models of fetal transplantation for PD, antiapoptotic agents, such as growth factors or caspase inhibitors, or agents counteracting oxidative stress enhance the survival and reinnervation potential of the graft. Genetic modification of the transplant could allow a local and continuous delivery of these factors at physiologically relevant doses. The major challenge remains the development of strategies to achieve both early and sustained gene delivery in the absence of vector-mediated toxicity. We recently reported that E14 rat fetal mesencephalon could be efficiently tranduced by adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV2) vectors and that gene expression was maintained until at least 3 months after transplantation in the adult rat striatum. Here we report that an AAV2 vector can mediate the expression of the EGFP reporter gene under the control of a CMV promoter in organotypic cultures of freshly explanted solid fragments of human fetal mesencephalic tissue as early as 3 days to at least 6 weeks postinfection. These results suggest that AAV2 vectors could be used to genetically modify the human fetal tissue prior to transplantation to Parkinson's patients to promote graft survival and integration.

Recombinant AAV-mediated gene delivery to the central nervous system.

Various regions of the brain have been successfully transduced by recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vectors with no detected toxicity. When using the cytomegalovirus immediate early (CMV) promoter, a gradual decline in the number of transduced cells has been described. In contrast, the use of cellular promoters such as the neuron-specific enolase promoter or hybrid promoters such as the chicken beta-actin/CMV promoter resulted in sustained transgene expression. The cellular tropism of rAAV-mediated gene transfer in the central nervous system (CNS) varies depending on the serotype used. Serotype 2 vectors preferentially transduce neurons whereas rAAV5 and rAAV1 transduce both neurons and glial cells. Recombinant AAV4-mediated gene transfer was inefficient in neurons and glial cells of the striatum (the only structure tested so far) but efficient in ependymal cells. No inflammatory response has been described following rAAV2 administration to the brain. In contrast, antibodies to AAV2 capsid and transgene product were elicited but no reduction of transgene expression was observed and readministration of vector without loss of efficiency was possible from 3 months after the first injection. Based on the success of pioneer work performed with marker genes, various strategies for therapeutic gene delivery were designed. These include enzyme replacement in lysosomal storage diseases, Canavan disease and Parkinson's disease; delivery of neuroprotective factors in Parkinson's disease, Huntington disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ischemia and spinal cord injury; as well as modulation of neurotransmission in epilepsy and Parkinson's disease. Several of these strategies have demonstrated promising results in relevant animal models. However, their implementation in the clinics will probably require a tight regulation and a specific targeting of therapeutic gene expression which still demands further developments of the vectors.

Transcription factors GATA-4 and GATA-6 in human adrenocortical tumors.

Transcription factors GATA-4 and GATA-6 are expressed during normal adrenocortical development in mice and humans, and in vitro studies have linked them to adrenal steroidogenesis. GATA-4 is highly expressed in the adrenocortical tumors of gonadectomized mice, whereas GATA-6 is down-regulated in the tumor area. Based on these findings we studied GATA-4 and GATA-6 expression in 39 human adrenocortical tumors using RT-PCR, Northern analysis and immunohistochemistry. 6/18 adenomas and 4/11 carcinomas were positive for GATA-4 mRNA. GATA-6 mRNA was expressed in 19/19 adenomas and 9/10 carcinomas, and GATA-6 immunoreactivity was remarkably lower in adrenocortical carcinomas than in adenomas (p < 0.05). Some of the steroidogenically active human adrenocortical cells (NCI-H295R) were weakly positive for GATA-4, whereas steroidogenically inactive cells (ACT-1) were totally GATA-4 negative. In contrast, both cell lines expressed GATA-6. GATA expression patterns similar to the animal models can thus be observed in human adrenocortical tumors, but the pathophysiological significance of these findings remains to be elucidated.

Evaluation of risks related to the use of adeno-associated virus-based vectors.

Recombinant AAV efficacy has been demonstrated in numerous gene therapy preclinical studies. As this vector is increasingly applied to human clinical trials, it is a priority to evaluate the risks of its use for workers involved in research and clinical trials as well as for the patients and their descendants. At high multiplicity of infection, wild-type AAV integrates into human chromosome 19 in approximately 60% of latently infected cell lines. However, it has been recently demonstrated that only approximately 1 out of 1000 infectious units can integrate. The mechanism of this site-specific integration involves AAV Rep proteins which are absent in vectors. Accordingly, recombinant AAV (rAAV) do not integrate site-specifically. Random integration of vector sequences has been demonstrated in established cell lines but only in some cases and at low frequency in primary cultures and in vivo. In contrast, episomal concatemers predominate.Therefore, the risks of insertional mutagenesis and activation of oncogenes are considered low. Biodistribution studies in non-human primates after intramuscular, intrabronchial, hepatic artery and subretinal administration showed low and transient levels of vector DNA in body fluids and distal organs. Analysis of patients body fluids revealed rAAV sequences in urine, saliva and serum at short-term. Transient shedding into the semen has been observed after delivery to the hepatic artery. However, motile germ cells seemed refractory to rAAV infection even when directly exposed to the viral particles, suggesting that the risk of insertion of new genetic material into the germ line is absent or extremely low. Risks related to viral capsid-induced inflammation also seem to be absent since immune response is restricted to generation of antibodies. In contrast, transgene products can elicit both cellular and humoral immune responses, depending on the nature of the expressed protein and of the route of vector administration. Finally, a correlation between early abortion as well as male infertility and the presence of wt AAV DNA in the genital tract has been suggested. Although no causal relationship has been established, this issue stresses the importance of using rAAV stocks devoid of contaminating replication-competent AAV. This review comprehensively examines virus integration, biodistribution, immune interactions, and other safety concerns regarding the wild-type AAV and recombinant AAV vectors.

Tetracycline-inducible transgene expression mediated by a single AAV vector.

Regulated gene delivery systems are usually made of two elements: an inducible promoter and a transactivator. In order to optimize gene delivery and regulation, a single viral vector ensuring adequate stoichiometry of the two elements is required. However, efficient regulation is hampered by interferences between the inducible promoter and (i) the promoter used to express the transactivator and/or (ii) promoter/enhancer elements present in the viral vector backbone. We describe a single AAV vector in which transcription of both the reverse tetracycline transactivator (rtTA) and the transgene is initiated from a bidirectional tetracycline-responsive promoter and terminated at bidirectional SV40 polyadenylation sites flanking both ITRs. Up to 50-fold induction of gene expression in human tumor cell lines and 100-fold in primary cultures of rat Schwann cells was demonstrated. In addition an 80-fold induction in vivo in the rat brain has been obtained. In vitro, the autoregulatory vector exhibits an induced expression level superior to that obtained using the constitutive CMV promoter. Although extinction of the transgene after removal of tetracycline was rapid (less than 3 days), inducibility after addition of tetracycline was slow (about 14 days). This kinetics is suitable for therapeutic gene expression in slowly progressive diseases while allowing rapid switch-off in case of undesirable effects. As compared to previously described autoregulatory tet-repressible (tetOFF) AAV vectors, the tet-inducible (tetON) vector prevents chronic antibiotic administration in the uninduced state.

Neuroprotective gene therapy for Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterised by a progressive loss of the dopaminergic neurones in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Accumulating evidence indicates that apoptosis contributes to neuronal cell death in PD patients' brain. Excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial respiratory failure are thought to be the key inducers of the apoptotic cascade. Even though the initial cause and the mechanism of degeneration are poorly understood, neuroprotection can be achieved by interfering with neuronal cell death either directly or by preventing neuronal dysfunction. Potential agents for neuroprotection are neurotrophic factors, inhibitors of apoptosis or anti-oxidative agents. However, the existence of the blood-brain barrier precludes systemic delivery of these factors. In situ gene delivery provides strategies for local and sustained administration of protective factors at physiologically relevant doses. Viral vectors mediating stable gene expression in the central nervous system exist and are still under development. Efficacy of these vectors has repeatedly been demonstrated in the animal models both ex vivo and in vivo. Ex vivo gene delivery could furthermore be combined with cell replacement therapies by transplanting genetically modified cells compensating for the lost neuronal cell population in order to provide neuroprotection to both the grafted cells and degenerating host neurones. However, several aspects of gene transfer, such as uncontrolled diffusion, axonal transport, unpredictable site of integration and immunological responses, still raise safety concerns and justify further development of viral and non-viral vectors as well as genetic elements with tightly controlled gene expression. Various relevant animal models for Parkinson's disease are available for the evaluation of gene therapy strategies. These include induction of cell death in specific neurone population through administration of toxins either directly in the brain or systemically, as well as transgenic mice expressing human disease-associated mutations.

AAV2 vectors mediate efficient and sustained transduction of rat embryonic ventral mesencephalon.

The success of transplantation of human embryonic mesencephalic tissue to treat parkinsonian patients is limited by the poor survival of the transplant. We show that an AAV2 vector mediates efficient expression of the egfp reporter gene in organotypic cultures of freshly explanted solid fragments of rat embryonic ventral mesencephalon (VM). We observed early and sustained transgene expression (4 days to > or = 6 weeks). Furthermore, rAAV-infected rat embryonic VM transplanted in the adult striatum continued to express EGFP for > or = 3 months. More than 95% of the transduced cells were neurons. Dopaminergic neurons were transduced at low frequency at earlier time points. This method of gene delivery could prove useful to achieve local, continuous secretion of neurotrophic factors at physiologically relevant doses to treat Parkinson's disease.

HMG-17 is an early marker of inductive interactions in the developing mouse kidney.

We studied the relationship between proliferation, differentiation, and the expression of high-mobility-group protein 17 (HMG-17) during metanephric kidney development. Proliferating cells were found homogenously throughout the early kidney rudiment. The expression pattern of HMG-17 mRNA, on the other hand, was distinctly uneven: In the undifferentiated mesenchyme, the cells in the cranial "tail" part of the mesenchyme showed only a weak signal, whereas a group of cells lying close to the tip of the ureteric bud showed strong HMG-17 expression. The region distinctly positive for HMG-17 is known to contain the first cells to undergo mesenchyme-to-epithelium transition. Using the transfilter model system, strong expression of HMG-17 mRNA, followed by mesenchyme-to-epithelium transition, could be induced also in the "tail" part of the mesenchyme. The upregulation of HMG-17 in the metanephrogenic mesenchyme thus results from interaction with an inductor tissue. Throughout the renal development, the HMG-17 mRNA was also abundant in those epithelial and mesenchymal cells that were undergoing active cell differentiation, and the transcript was downregulated in mature cells. HMG-17 expression thus correlated with the processes of induction and differentiation rather than with proliferation. The present results suggest that HMG-17 could have a role in the activation of the genes regulating kidney organogenesis.

Inability to enter S phase and defective RNA polymerase II CTD phosphorylation in mice lacking Mat1.

The trimeric Cdk7-cyclin H-Mat1 complex comprises the kinase subunit of basal transcription factor TFIIH and has been shown to function as a cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)-activating kinase. Herein we report that disruption of the murine Mat1 gene leads to peri-implantation lethality coincident with depletion of maternal Mat1 protein. In culture, Mat1(-/-) blastocysts gave rise to viable post-mitotic trophoblast giant cells while mitotic lineages failed to proliferate and survive. In contrast to wild-type trophoblast giant cells, Mat1(-/-) cells exhibited a rapid arrest in endoreduplication, which was characterized by an inability to enter S phase. Additionally, Mat1(-/-) cells exhibited defects in phosphorylation of the C-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II on both Ser5 and Ser2 of the heptapeptide repeat. Despite this, Mat1(-/-) cells demonstrated apparent transcriptional and translational integrity. These data indicate an essential role for Mat1 in progression through the endocycle and suggest that while Mat1 modulates CTD phosphorylation, it does not appear to be essential for RNA polymerase II-mediated transcription.

In vivo interaction of the adapter protein CD2-associated protein with the type 2 polycystic kidney disease protein, polycystin-2.

We identified a developmentally regulated gene from mouse kidney whose expression is up-regulated in metanephrogenic mesenchyme cells when they are induced to differentiate to epithelial cells during kidney organogenesis. The deduced 70.5-kDa protein, originally named METS-1 (mesenchyme-to-epithelium transition protein with SH3 domains), has since been cloned as a CD2-associated protein (CD2AP). CD2AP is strongly expressed in glomerular podocytes, and the absence of CD2AP in mice results in congenital nephrotic syndrome. We have found that METS-1/CD2AP (hereafter referred to as CD2AP) is expressed at lower levels in renal tubular epithelial cells in the adult kidney, particularly in distal nephron segments. Independent yeast two-hybrid screens using the COOH-terminal region of either CD2AP or polycystin-2 as bait identified the COOH termini of polycystin-2 and CD2AP, respectively, as strong interacting partners. This interaction was confirmed in cultured cells by co-immunoprecipitation of endogenous polycystin-2 with endogenous CD2AP and vice versa. CD2AP shows a diffuse reticular cytoplasmic and perinuclear pattern of distribution, similar to polycystin-2, in cultured cells, and the two proteins co-localize by indirect double immunofluorescence microscopy. CD2AP is an adapter molecule that associates with a variety of membrane proteins to organize the cytoskeleton around a polarized site. Such a function fits well with that hypothesized for the polycystin proteins in renal tubular epithelial cells, and the present findings suggest that CD2AP has a role in polycystin-2 function.

Impaired migration and delayed differentiation of pancreatic islet cells in mice lacking EGF-receptors.

Pancreatic acini and islets are believed to differentiate from common ductal precursors through a process requiring various growth factors. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF-R) is expressed throughout the developing pancreas. We have analyzed here the pancreatic phenotype of EGF-R deficient (-/-) mice, which generally die from epithelial immaturity within the first postnatal week. The pancreata appeared macroscopically normal. The most striking feature of the EGF-R (-/-) islets was that instead of forming circular clusters, the islet cells were mainly located in streak-like structures directly associated with pancreatic ducts. Based on BrdU-labelling, proliferation of the neonatal EGF-R (-/-) beta-cells was significantly reduced (2.6+/-0.4 versus 5.8+/-0.9%, P<0.01) and the difference persisted even at 7-11 days of age. Analysis of embryonic pancreata revealed impaired branching morphogenesis and delayed islet cell differentiation in the EGF-R (-/-) mice. Islet development was analyzed further in organ cultures of E12.5 pancreata. The proportion of insulin-positive cells was significantly lower in the EGF-R (-/-) explants (27+/-6 versus 48+/-8%, P<0.01), indicating delayed differentiation of the beta cells. Branching of the epithelium into ducts was also impaired. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-2 and MMP-9) activity was reduced 20% in EGF-R (-/-) late-gestation pancreata, as measured by gelatinase assays. Furthermore, the levels of secreted plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) were markedly higher, while no apparent differences were seen in the levels of active uPA and tPa between EGF-R (-/-) and wild-type pancreata. Our findings suggest that the perturbation of EGF-R-mediated signalling can lead to a generalized proliferation defect of the pancreatic epithelia associated with a delay in beta cell development and disturbed migration of the developing islet cells as they differentiate from their precursors. Upregulated PAI-1 production and decreased gelatinolytic activity correlated to this migration defect. An intact EGF-R pathway appears to be a prerequisite for normal pancreatic development.

Localization of growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) mRNA and protein in rat ovaries and cDNA cloning of rat GDF-9 and its novel homolog GDF-9B.

Although targeted gene disruption of GDF-9, an oocyte derived growth factor, leads to an arrest of folliculogenesis and causes infertility in female mice, little is known on the expression of GDF-9 protein in the ovary. We show that GDF-9 protein is expressed in rat oocytes during folliculogenesis from the early primary follicle stage onwards but the most intensive immunostaining was seen in primary and preantral follicles. Northern blot analyses of the ontogeny of GDF-9 gene expression in postnatal rat ovaries showed that the GDF-9 transcript levels are clearly increased on the second postnatal day concomitant with the appearance of primary follicles. Interestingly, Northern blot and in situ hybridization analyses indicate a similar expression pattern for GDF-9B, the rat ortholog of a mouse GDF-9 like factor for which we recently reported the partial amino acid sequence. The polypeptide sequences deduced from isolated ovarian cDNAs indicate that the rat GDF-9 prepropeptide is 440 amino acids (aa) in length and the putative mature peptide is 135 aa whereas rat GDF-9B is 391 aa long and the mature region is 125 aa. We conclude that (1) the GDF-9 protein is highly expressed in the oocytes of primary follicles of rat ovaries suggesting that it plays a role mainly in early folliculogenesis and that (2) the full-length polypeptide sequence of GDF-9B suggests that this novel TGF-beta family member is likely to be a secreted growth factor that may regulate folliculogenesis at similar developmental stages as GDF-9.

Vesicular transport and kidney development.

Vesicular transport processes play crucial roles in the biogenesis of cellular membranes and in the polarized transport functions of epithelial cells. During the 1990's we have witnessed major progress in elucidation of the machineries responsible for the intracellular membrane trafficking. The components of these machineries are abundant in tissues with a high content of epithelial cells, such as the kidney. However, the developmental role of the membrane trafficking apparatus in higher eukaryotes has been addressed hardly at all. We summarize here data on the presence and the functional role of vesicle transport proteins in the kidney, and describe work addressing the developmentally regulated expression and localization of three molecules suggested to be involved in polarized trafficking in kidney epithelia, Rab17, syntaxin 3, and Munc-18-2. The results show that specialized transport machinery is induced during differentiation of renal epithelia. However, the expression levels of the components under study are highest in the mature structures, indicating that the proteins are predominantly required for the function of mature epithelia and possibly for the maintenance of the polarized phenotype of specific epithelial cells. The proteins are, however, detected at low levels already in earlier, differentiating structures, and could thus also be involved in the differentiation of kidney epithelia.

Syntaxin 3 and Munc-18-2 in epithelial cells during kidney development.

BACKGROUND: Differentiation of epithelial cells involves the assembly of polarized membrane transport machineries necessary for the generation and maintenance of the apical and basolateral membrane domains characteristic of this cell type. We have analyzed the expression patterns of vesicle-docking proteins of the syntaxin family in mouse kidney, focusing on syntaxin 3 and its interaction partner, the Sec1-related Munc-18-2. METHODS: Expression patterns were studied by in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry and the complex formation of syntaxin 3 and Munc-18-2 by coimmunoprecipitation and Western blotting. RESULTS: We have previously shown by in situ hybridization that Munc-18-2 is present in the proximal tubules and collecting ducts of embryonic day 17 mouse kidney. We compared this with the expression patterns of syntaxin 1A, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and found that syntaxin 3 was enriched in the same epithelial structures in which Munc-18-2 was abundant. By immunocytochemistry, the two proteins colocalized at the apical plasma membrane of proximal tubule and collecting duct epithelial cells, and they were shown to form a physical complex in the kidney. The expression of both proteins was up-regulated during kidney development. The most prominent changes in expression levels coincided with the differentiation of proximal tubules, suggesting a role in the generation of the highly active reabsorption machinery characterizing this segment of the nephron. CONCLUSION: The results show that Munc-18-2 and syntaxin 3 form a complex in vivo and suggest that they participate in epithelial cell differentiation and targeted vesicle transport processes in the developing kidney.

A novel growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) related factor is co-expressed with GDF-9 in mouse oocytes during folliculogenesis.

Growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) is a transforming growth factor-b (TGF-b) family member which is expressed in the oocytes in mouse ovaries (McGrath, S.A., Esquela, A.F., Lee, S.J., 1995. Oocyte-specific expression of growth/differentiation factor-9. Mol. Endocrinol. 9, 131-136). GDF-9 is indispensable for normal folliculogenesis since female mice deficient for the GDF-9 gene are infertile due to an arrest of follicular growth at the primary follicle stage (Dong, J., Albertini, D.F., Nishimori, K., Kumar, T.R. , Lu, N., Matzuk, M.M., 1996. Growth differentiation factor-9 is required during early ovarian folliculogenesis. Nature 383, 531-535). We searched the GenBank Expressed Sequence Tag (EST) database with the mouse GDF-9 cDNA sequence, and identified from a mouse 2-cell embryo library an EST cDNA that encodes a putative member of the TGF-b superfamily, and named it as GDF-9B. Northern blot hybridization analyses of mouse ovaries revealed a single transcript of approximately 4.0 kilobases (kb) for GDF-9B and of 2.0 kb for GDF-9. We cloned by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction from mouse ovarian RNA a partial 821-base pair GDF-9B cDNA that spans the sequence encoding the putative mature region of GDF-9B. The COOH-terminal region of GDF-9B appears to be 53% homologous to GDF-9. Moreover, like GDF-9, GDF-9B lacks the cysteine residue needed for the covalent dimerization of several TGF-b family members. Using in situ hybridization analysis, we demonstrate that GDF-9B and GDF-9 mRNAs are co-localized in the oocyte. We also show that GDF-9B and GDF-9 genes are co-ordinately expressed during follicular development.

HMG-17, a chromosomal non-histone protein, shows developmental regulation during organogenesis.

We used the differential hybridization technique for isolating developmentally regulated genes from the mouse metanephric kidney. In this screening, we identified the cDNA encoding high-mobility-group protein 17 (HMG-17), a chromosomal non-histone protein which modulates the conformation of transcriptionally active chromatin. Using Northern blot analysis, the HMG-17 mRNA was strongly expressed during embryogenesis and downregulated in various adult murine organs. At the histological level, the transcript localized to differentiating tissue regions and was apparently downregulated in mature structures indicating that HMG-17 expression is linked to cell differentiation. HMG-17 can thus be regarded as a general marker for tissues or cells undergoing differentiation during organogenesis.