Mechanisms of Friction Reduction in Longitudinal Ultrasonic Surface Haptic Devices With Non-Collinear Vibrations and Finger Displacement.

Friction reduction using ultrasonic longitudinal surface vibration can modify the user perception of the touched surface and induce the perception of textured materials. In the current paper, the mechanisms of friction reduction using longitudinal vibration are analyzed at different finger exploration velocities and directions over a plate. The development of a non-Coulombic adhesion theory based on experimental results is evaluated as a possible explanation for friction reduction with vibrations that are non-collinear with the finger displacement. Comparison with experimental data shows that the model adequately describes the reduction in friction, although it is less accurate for low finger velocities and depends on motion direction.

Human low-threshold mechanoafferent responses to pure changes in friction controlled using an ultrasonic haptic device.

The forces that are developed when manipulating objects generate sensory cues that inform the central nervous system about the qualities of the object's surface and the status of the hand/object interaction. Afferent responses to frictional transients or slips have been studied in the context of lifting/holding tasks. Here, we used microneurography and an innovative tactile stimulator, the Stimtac, to modulate both the friction level of a surface, without changing the surface or adding a lubricant, and, to generate the frictional transients in a pure and net fashion. In three protocols, we manipulated: the frictional transients, the friction levels, the rise times, the alternation of phases of decrease or increase in friction to emulate grating-like stimuli. Afferent responses were recorded in 2 FAIs, 1 FAII, 2 SAIs and 3 SAIIs from the median nerve of human participants. Independently of the unit type, we observed that: single spikes were generated time-locked to the frictional transients, and that reducing the friction level reduced the number of spikes during the stable phase of the stimulation. Our results suggest that those frictional cues are encoded in all the unit types and emphasize the possibility to use the Stimtac device to control mechanoreceptor firing with high temporal precision.

PCA Model of Fundamental Acoustic Finger Force for Out-of-Plane Ultrasonic Vibration and its Correlation with Friction Reduction.

When a finger touches an ultrasonic vibrating plate, a non-sinusoidal contact force is produced. This force is called acoustic finger force. In a setup where closed-loop control is performed on the vibration amplitude, a component of the acoustic finger force can be measured at the fundamental vibration frequency of the plate. This calculation is obtained from the measurement of the variation of the controller voltage between the no-load case and when a finger is present. This calculation is made for a group of twelve participants. From these results a PCA (Principal Component Analysis) model is created. This model permits estimation of the acoustic finger force response of a participant at any vibration amplitude, based on a one or two point measurement. Finally, a linear relation between the PCA coefficients and the friction reduction is proposed. The objective of this relation would be to ultimately provide the means to create an amplitude reference calibration based on the desired friction reduction level, and thus be able to produce a standardized tactile feedback for each user, despite the biomechanical differences in finger pad properties between subjects.

The Perception of Ultrasonic Square Reductions of Friction With Variable Sharpness and Duration.

The human perception of square ultrasonic modulation of the finger-surface friction was investigated during active tactile exploration by using short frictional cues of varying duration and sharpness. In a first experiment, we asked participants to discriminate the transition time and duration of short square ultrasonic reductions of friction. They proved very sensitive to discriminate millisecond differences in these two parameters with the average psychophysical thresholds being 2.3-2.4 ms for both parameters. A second experiment focused on the perception of square friction reductions with variable transition times and durations. We found that for durations of the stimulation larger than 90 ms, participants often perceived three or four edges when only two stimulations were presented while they consistently felt two edges for signals shorter than 50 ms. A subsequent analysis of the contact forces induced by these ultrasonic stimulations during slow and fast active exploration showed that two identical consecutive ultrasonic pulses can induce significantly different frictional dynamics especially during fast motion of the finger. These results confirm the human sensitivity to transient frictional cues and suggest that the human perception of square reductions of friction can depend on their sharpness and duration as well as on the speed of exploration.

The tactile perception of transient changes in friction.

When we touch an object or explore a texture, frictional strains are induced by the tactile interactions with the surface of the object. Little is known about how these interactions are perceived, although it becomes crucial for the nascent industry of interactive displays with haptic feedback (e.g. smartphones and tablets) where tactile feedback based on friction modulation is particularly relevant. To investigate the human perception of frictional strains, we mounted a high-fidelity friction modulating ultrasonic device on a robotic platform performing controlled rubbing of the fingertip and asked participants to detect induced decreases of friction during a forced-choice task. The ability to perceive the changes in friction was found to follow Weber's Law of just noticeable differences, as it consistently depended on the ratio between the reduction in tangential force and the pre-stimulation tangential force. The Weber fraction was 0.11 in all conditions demonstrating a very high sensitivity to transient changes in friction. Humid fingers experienced less friction reduction than drier ones for the same intensity of ultrasonic vibration but the Weber fraction for detecting changes in friction was not influenced by the humidity of the skin.

Friction Reduction through Ultrasonic Vibration Part 1: Modelling Intermittent Contact.

Ultrasonic vibration is employed to modify the friction of a finger pad in way that induces haptic sensations. A combination of intermittent contact and squeeze film levitation has been previously proposed as the most probable mechanism. In this paper, in order to understand the underlying principles that govern friction modulation by intermittent contact, numerical models based on finite element (FE) analysis and also a spring-Coulombic slider are developed. The physical input parameters for the FE model are optimized by measuring the contact phase shift between a finger pad and a vibrating plate. The spring-slider model assists in the interpretation of the FE model and leads to the identification of a dimensionless group that allows the calculated coefficient of friction to be approximately superimposed onto an exponential function of the dimensionless group. Thus, it is possible to rationalize the computed relative reduction in friction being (i) dependent on the vibrational amplitude, frequency, and the intrinsic coefficient of friction of the device, and the reciprocal of the exploration velocity, and (ii) independent of the applied normal force, and the shear and extensional elastic moduli of the finger skin provided that intermittent contact is sufficiently well developed. Experimental validation of the modelling using real and artificial fingertips will be reported in part 2 of this work, which supports the current modelling.

Friction Reduction through Ultrasonic Vibration Part 2: Experimental Evaluation of Intermittent Contact and Squeeze Film Levitation.

In part 1 of the current study of haptic displays, a finite element (FE) model of a finger exploring a plate vibrating out-of-plane at ultrasonic frequencies was developed as well as a spring-frictional slider model. It was concluded that the reduction in friction induced by the vibrations could be ascribed to ratchet mechanism as a result of intermittent contact. The relative reduction in friction calculated using the FE model could be superimposed onto an exponential function of a dimensionless group defined from relevant parameters. The current paper presents measurements of the reduction in friction, involving real and artificial fingertips, as a function of the vibrational amplitude and frequency, the applied normal force and the exploration velocity. The results are reasonably similar to the calculated FE values and also could be superimposed using the exponential function provided that the intermittent contact was sufficiently well developed, which for the frequencies examined correspond to a minimum vibrational amplitude of  âˆ¼ 1 µm P-P. It was observed that the reduction in friction depends on the exploration velocity and is independent of the applied normal force and ambient air pressure, which is not consistent with the squeeze film mechanism. However, the modelling did not incorporate the influence of air and the effect of ambient pressure was measured under a limited range of conditions, Thus squeeze film levitation may be synergistic with the mechanical interaction.

Enhancing Variable Friction Tactile Display Using an Ultrasonic Travelling Wave.

In Variable Friction Tactile Displays, an ultrasonic standing wave can be used to reduce the friction coefficient between a user's finger sliding and a vibrating surface. However, by principle, the effect is limited by a saturation due to the contact mechanics, and very low friction levels require very high vibration amplitudes. Besides, to be effective, the user's finger has to move. We present a device which uses a travelling wave rather than a standing wave. We present a control that allows to realize such a travelling wave in a robust way, and thus can be implemented on various plane surfaces. We show experimentally that the force produced by the travelling wave has two superimposed contributions. The first one is equal to the friction reduction produced by a standing of the same vibration amplitude. The second produces a driving force in the opposite direction of the travelling wave. As a result, the modulation range of the tangential force on the finger can be extended to zero and even negative values. Moreover, the effect is dependant on the relative direction of exploration with regards to the travelling wave, which is perceivable and confirmed by a psycho-physical study.

Physical and Perceptual Independence of Ultrasonic Vibration and Electrovibration for Friction Modulation.

Two different principles are available to modulate the user perceived roughness of a surface: electrovibration and ultrasonic vibration of a plate. The former enhances the perceived friction coefficient and the latter reduces it. This paper will highlight the independence of the two effects on the physical and perceptual point of view to confirm the increased range of sensation and stimulation that can be supplied by the two coupled techniques to the users. Firstly, a tribometric analysis of the induced lateral force on the finger by the two coupled effects will be presented, then a study on the dynamic of the two effects will be reported. In the end, a psychophysical experiment on the perception of the two coupled techniques will be shown.

Vector control method applied to a traveling wave in a finite beam.

This paper presents the closed-loop control of exciters to produce a traveling wave in a finite beam. This control is based on a dynamical modeling of the system established in a rotating reference frame. This method allows dynamic and independent control of the phase and amplitude of two vibration modes. The condition to obtain the traveling wave is written in this rotating frame, and requires having two vibration modes with the same amplitude, and imposing a phase shift of 90° between them. The advantage of the method is that it allows easy implementation of a closed loop control that can handle parameter drift of the system, after a temperature rise, for example. The modeling is compared with measurement on an experimental test bench which also implements real-time control. We managed to experimentally obtain a settling time of 250 ms for the traveling wave, and a standing wave ratio (SWR) of 1.3.

Contribution of slip cue to curvature perception through active and dynamic touch.

Haptic perception of curvature depends largely on the kind of touch. An active and dynamic touch is considered to be the most natural way of exploring. In this study, we have designed and evaluated a kinematic platform for curvature perception through active and dynamic touch. This platform can independently orient, elevate, and translate a flat plate; by exploring forward and backward along the flat plate with a finger, users can achieve curvature feeling of extruded objects. The mechanism of platform and the way of touch have maximally respected the cues for curvature perception, especially the slip cue. Psychophysical evaluation demonstrated that the discrimination threshold of curvature for virtual shapes is close to that for real shapes, and the virtual shape is felt equally curved as the real one. The curvature perception of mono-convex surfaces was then expanded to perception of more complex surfaces: large textures, which have a sinusoidal profile. The evaluation has accessed the correspondence between the virtual and real large textures.

Squeeze film effect for the design of an ultrasonic tactile plate.

Most tactile displays currently built rely on pin-based arrays. However, this kind of tactile device is not always appropriate when we need to give the illusion of finely textured surfaces. In this paper, we describe the squeeze film effect between a plate and a finger, and we use this effect to design an ultrasonic tactile plate. The plate is actuated by piezoelectric ceramics. Ultrasonic vibrations are thus produced and are capable of generating the squeeze film effect. This enables us to simulate variable friction on the surface of the plate. In order to identify the squeeze film phenomenon, this study considers the case where a finger, with a planar bottom surface and with epidermal ridges, is placed on a rapidly vibrating plate. The overpressure is calculated and the result enables us to assess the relative coefficient of friction as a function of the vibration amplitude of the plate. Based on this principle, and using both analytic and FE method studies, and given ergonomic and stimulation (squeeze film) requirements, we show that it is possible to design a tactile plate which is capable of giving programmable tactile sensations. We conclude by comparing the results obtained from our simulations with experimental results.