Neuroprotective effects of platinum nanoparticle-based microreactors in bicuculline-induced seizures.

Epilepsy designates a group of chronic brain disorders, characterized by the recurrence of hypersynchronous, repetitive activity, of neuronal clusters. Epileptic seizures are the hallmark of epilepsy. The primary goal of epilepsy treatment is to eliminate seizures with minimal side effects. Nevertheless, approximately 30% of patients do not respond to the available drugs. An imbalance between excitatory/inhibitory neurotransmission, that leads to excitotoxicity, seizures, and cell death, has been proposed as an important mechanism regarding epileptogenesis. Recently, it has been shown that microreactors composed of platinum nanoparticles (Pt-NP) and glutamate dehydrogenase possess in vitro and in vivo activity against excitotoxicity. This study investigates the in vivo effects of these microreactors in an animal model of epilepsy induced by the administration of the GABAergic antagonist bicuculline. Male Wistar rats were administered intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) with the microreactors or saline and, five days later, injected with bicuculline or saline. Seizure severity was evaluated in an open field. Thirty min after behavioral measurements, animals were euthanized, and their brains processed for neurodegeneration evaluation and for neurogenesis. Treatment with the microreactors significantly increased the time taken for the onset of seizures and for the first tonic-clonic seizure, when compared to the bicuculline group that did not receive the microreactor. The administration of the microreactors also increased the time spent in total exploration and grooming. Treatment with the microreactors decreased bicuculline-induced neurodegeneration and increased neurogenesis in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus. These observations suggest that treatment with Pt-NP-based microreactors attenuates the behavioral and neurobiological consequences of epileptiform seizure activity.

Platinum nanoparticle-based microreactors protect against the behavioral and neurobiological consequences of chronic stress exposure.

Excitotoxicity is described as the exacerbated activation of glutamate AMPA and NMDA receptors that leads to neuronal damage, and ultimately to cell death. Astrocytes are responsible for the clearance of 80-90% of synaptically released glutamate, preventing excitotoxicity. Chronic stress renders neurons vulnerable to excitotoxicity and has been associated to neuropsychiatric disorders, i.e., anxiety. Microreactors containing platinum nanoparticles (Pt-NP) and glutamate dehydrogenase have shown in vitro activity against excitotoxicity. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the in vivo effects of these microreactors on the behavioral and neurobiological effects of chronic stress exposure. Rats were either unstressed or exposed for 2 weeks to an unpredictable chronic mild stress paradigm (UCMS), administered intra-ventral hippocampus with the microreactors (with or without the blockage of astrocyte functioning), and seven days later tested in the elevated T-maze (ETM; Experiment 1). The ETM allows the measurement of two defensive responses, avoidance and escape, in terms of psychopathology respectively related to generalized anxiety and panic disorder. Locomotor activity in an open field was also measured. Since previous evidence shows that stress inhibits adult neurogenesis, we evaluated the effects of the different treatments on the number of cells expressing the marker of migrating neuroblasts doublecortin (DCX) in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus (Experiment 2). Results showed that UCMS induces anxiogenic effects, increases locomotion, and decreases the number of DCX cells in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus, effects that were counteracted by microreactor administration. This is the first study to demonstrate the in vivo efficacy of Pt-NP against the behavioral and neurobiological effects of chronic stress exposure.

Deep brain stimulation of the dorsal raphe inhibits avoidance and escape reactions and activates forebrain regions related to the modulation of anxiety/panic.

One of the main neurochemical systems associated with anxiety/panic is the serotonergic system originating from the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR). Previous evidence suggests that the DR is composed of distinct subpopulations of neurons, both morphologically and functionally distinct. It seems that mainly the dorsal region of the DR (DRD) regulates anxiety-related reactions, while lateral wings DR (lwDR) serotonin (5-HT) neurons inhibit panic-related responses. In this study we used the technique of deep brain stimulation (DBS) to investigate the role played by the DRD and lwDR in defense. Male Wistar rats were submitted to high-frequency stimulation (100µA, 100Hz) in one of the two DR regions for 1h and immediately after tested in the avoidance or escape tasks of the elevated T-maze (ETM). In clinical terms, these responses have been related to generalized anxiety and panic disorder, respectively. After being submitted to the ETM, animals were placed in an open field for locomotor activity assessment. An additional group of rats was submitted to DBS of the DRD or the lwDR and used for quantification of c-Fos immunoreactive (Fos-ir) neurons in brain regions related to the modulation of defense. Results showed that stimulation of the DRD decreased avoidance latencies, an anxiolytic-like effect. DRD stimulation also led to increases in Fos-ir in the medial amygdala, lateral septum and cingulate cortex. DBS applied to the lwDR increased escape latencies, a panicolytic-like effect. This data highlights the importance of raphe topography and the potential benefit of the DBS technique for the treatment of anxiety-related disorders.

Unpredictable chronic mild stress exerts anxiogenic-like effects and activates neurons in the dorsal and caudal region and in the lateral wings of the dorsal raphe nucleus.

In previous studies, we verified that exposure to unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) facilitates avoidance responses in the elevated T-maze (ETM) and increased Fos-immunoreactivity in different brain structures involved in the regulation of anxiety, including the dorsal raphe (DR). Since, it has been shown that the DR is composed of distinct subpopulations of serotonergic and non-serotonergic neurons, the present study investigated the pattern of activation of these different subnuclei of the region in response to this stress protocol. Male Wistar rats were either unstressed or exposed to the UCMS procedure for two weeks and, subsequently, analyzed for Fos-immunoreactivity (Fos-ir) in serotonergic cells of the DR. To verify if the anxiogenic effects observed in the ETM could be generalized to other anxiety models, a group of animals was also tested in the light/dark transition test after UCMS exposure. Results showed that the UCMS procedure decreased the number of transitions and increased the number of stretched attend postures in the model, an anxiogenic effect. UCMS exposure also increased Fos-ir and the number of double-labeled neurons in the mid-rostral subdivision of the dorsal part of the DR and in the mid-caudal region of the lateral wings. In the caudal region of the DR there was a significant increase in the number of Fos-ir. No significant effects were found in the other DR subnuclei. These results corroborate the idea that neurons of specific subnuclei of the DR regulate anxiety responses and are differently activated by chronic stress exposure.