Early Mucosal Healing with Exclusive Enteral Nutrition is Associated with Improved Outcomes in Newly Diagnosed Children with Luminal Crohn's disease.

BACKGROUND: Exclusive Enteral Nutrition (EEN) induction in children with luminal Crohn's disease (CD) gives early mucosal healing (MH), but the long-term benefits of EEN-induced MH are just emerging. AIMS & METHODS: We prospectively followed an Australian cohort of newly diagnosed children with predominantly luminal CD who completed at least six weeks EEN and with paired clinical Pediatric Crohn's Disease Activity Index (PCDAI), biochemical (C-reactive protein; CRP) and endoscopic assessment at diagnosis and post EEN. All commenced immunomodulators (IMs) early (<3 months from diagnosis) and had a minimum of 1 year follow-up. Complete MH was a simple endoscopic score for Crohn's disease (SES-CD) of 0, and SES-CD≥1 was ascribed to active endoscopic disease (aED) and further divided into near complete MH (SES 1-3), mild active disease (SES-CD 4-10) and moderate to severe disease (SES-CD>10). The primary outcome was long-term supervised sustained remission (SR) on IMs alone without need for corticosteroids, infliximab (IFX) or surgery. RESULTS: A total of 54 eligible children (33 males) completing EEN induction were analysed. The median duration between pre and post EEN assessments was 60.5 days [interquartile range (IQR), 56-69.5]. Post EEN: clinical remission (PCDAI < 10) was observed in 45/54 (83%), and biochemical remission (PCDAI < 10 and CRP < 5 mg/dl) was observed in 39/54 (72%). Complete MH was observed in 18/54 (33%), near complete in 10/54(19%). SR was superior in those with complete MH vs. aED; 13/18, (72%) vs. 10/36 (28%), p = 0.003 at 1 year, 8/16, (50%) vs. 3/24, (8%), p = 0.008 at 2 years and (8/16, (50%) vs. 1/19, (6%), p = 0.005) at 3 years. Near-complete MH did not lead to superior SR. CONCLUSIONS: Only complete MH post EEN induction predicts more favourable SR for up to 3 years.

Paracetamol-associated acute liver failure in Australian and New Zealand children: high rate of medication errors.

BACKGROUND: In children, paracetamol overdose due to deliberate self-poisoning, accidental exposure or medication errors can lead to paediatric acute liver failure and death. In Australia and New Zealand, the nature of ingestion and outcomes of paracetamol-associated paediatric acute liver failure have not been described. OBJECTIVE: To describe the nature and outcomes of paracetamol-associated paediatric acute liver failure. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of paracetamol-associated paediatric acute liver failure cases presenting 2002-2012. SETTING: New Zealand and Queensland Paediatric Liver Transplant Services. RESULTS: 14 of 54 cases of paediatric acute liver failure were attributed to paracetamol, the majority were secondary to medication errors. 12 of the 14 children were under the age of 5 years. Seven children received doses in excess of 120 mg/kg/day. Many of the other children received either a double dose, too frequent administration, coadministration of other medicines containing paracetamol or regular paracetamol for up to 24 days. Three children underwent transplant. One of these and one other child died. CONCLUSIONS: In Australia and New Zealand, paracetamol overdose secondary to medication errors is the leading cause of paediatric acute liver failure. A review of regional safety practices surrounding paracetamol use in children is indicated.

Artificial neural network is highly predictive of outcome in paediatric acute liver failure.

Current prognostic models in PALF are unreliable, failing to account for complex, non-linear relationships existing between multiple prognostic factors. A computational approach using ANN should provide superior modelling to PELD-MELD scores. We assessed the prognostic accuracy of PELD-MELD scores and ANN in PALF in children presenting to the QLTS, Australia. A comprehensive registry-based data set was evaluated in 54 children (32M, 22F, median age 17 month) with PALF. PELD-MELD scores calculated at (i) meeting PALF criteria and (ii) peak. ANN was evaluated using stratified 10-fold cross-validation. Outcomes were classified as good (transplant-free survival) or poor (death or LT) and predictive accuracy compared using AUROC curves. Mean PELD-MELD scores were significantly higher in non-transplanted non-survivors (i) 37 and (ii) 46 and transplant recipients (i) 32 and (ii) 43 compared to transplant-free survivors (i) 26 and (ii) 30. Threshold PELD-MELD scores ≥27 and ≥42, at meeting PALF criteria and peak, gave AUROC 0.71 and 0.86, respectively, for poor outcome. ANN showed superior prediction for poor outcome with AUROC 0.96, sensitivity 82.6%, specificity 96%, PPV 96.2% and NPV 85.7% (cut-off 0.5). ANN is superior to PELD-MELD for predicting poor outcome in PALF.

Increase in de novo allergies after paediatric liver transplantation: the Brisbane experience.

UNLABELLED: Pediatric liver transplantation is a successful procedure with 10-yr survival rate of 70%; following transplantation, the emphasis on promoting good quality of life is important. The increasing prevalence of allergic disorders in the general population and an increase in food allergy following solid organ transplantation are described in patients, especially in children, but the contribution to morbidity post-OLT has not been addressed. OBJECTIVES: Identifying the incidence de novo allergies post-OLT performed by QLTS over 11 yr. METHODS: Comprehensive medical record review of OLT recipients during study period. RESULTS: From 1st July 1998 to 1st August 2009, 78 children received 85 cadaveric OLT; 60 children survived. Allergic disease was documented in 24/60 (40%) survivors. De novo food allergies were diagnosed in 12/60 (20%) (Table 2), 9/12 occurred in children who were infants at time of transplant. Ten of 12 had severe allergies, six anaphylactic; 6/60 (10%) carry an EpiPen. Only 31/60 (51%) diagnosed are followed in Queensland, suggesting severe allergic disease in our cohort is an underestimate. CONCLUSION: Serious allergic disease post-OLT is clinically important, especially in infants at time of transplant, and should be targeted for specialist allergist referral and risk management. [Table: see text].

An objective study of acid reflux and cough in children using an ambulatory pHmetry-cough logger.

OBJECTIVE: There are no objective ambulatory studies on the temporal relationship between reflux and cough in children. Commercial pHmetry loggers have slow capture rates (0.25 Hz) that limit objective quantification of reflux and cough. The authors aimed to evaluate if there is a temporal association between cough and acid pH in ambulatory children with chronic cough. DESIGN, SETTING AND PATIENTS: The authors studied children (aged <14 years) with chronic cough, suspected of acid reflux and considered for pHmetry using a specifically built ambulatory pHmetry-cough logger that enabled the simultaneous ambulatory recording of cough and pH with a fast (10 Hz) capture rate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Coughs within (before and after) 10, 30, 60 and 120 s of a reflux episode (pH<4 for >0.5 s). RESULTS: Analysis of 5628 coughs in 20 children. Most coughs (83.9%) were independent of a reflux event. Cough-reflux (median 19, IQR 3-45) and reflux-cough (24.5, 13-51) sequences were equally likely to occur within 120 s. Within the 10 and 30 s time frame, reflux-cough (10 s=median 2.5, IQR 0-7.25; 30 s=6.5, 1.25-22.25) sequences were significantly less frequent than reflux-no cough (10 s=27, IQR 15-65; 30 s=24.5, 14.5-55.5) sequences, (p=0.0001 and p=0.001, respectively). No differences were found for 60 and 120 s time frame. Cough-reflux sequence (median 1.0, IQR 0-8) within 10 s was significantly less (p=0.0001) than no cough-reflux sequences (median 29.5, 15-67), within 30 s (p=0.006) and 60 s (p=0.048) but not within 120 s (p=0.47). CONCLUSIONS: In children with chronic cough and suspected of having gastro-oesophageal reflux disease, the temporal relationship between acid reflux and cough is unlikely causal.

Audit of eosinophilic oesophagitis in children post-liver transplant.

Pediatric liver transplantation has proven so successful that 10-yr survival post-transplantation is in excess of 70% and following transplantation, emphasis of medical care switches from life saving to promotion of good quality of life. EE is an increasingly recognised phenomenon in the general population. Eosinophilic disorders of the GI tract are increasingly recognised in patient's post-solid organ transplantation but the contribution of EE to morbidity in this population has not been addressed to date. The objective of this study was to identify the incidence of EE in children receiving liver transplantation by the QLTS over the last 15.5 yr. Comprehensive review of medical records of all liver transplant recipients during study period via cross-checking procedural and electronic laboratory results was performed. All oesophageal biopsies reporting mucosal inflammation were reviewed. EE can be diagnosed when oesophageal biopsy reveals > or =5 eosinophils per HPF; however, we used a cut-off of 20 eosinophils per HPF, which is in accordance with current opinion. In the 159 children who received DD OLT, 130 survived and four have been diagnosed with EE (3%). Only 34 are currently followed in Queensland and all four patients diagnosed are in this cohort representing 12% of our follow-up clinic. Many patients are followed elsewhere so occurrence of EE in our total surviving population is an underestimate. EE is clinically important in the post-liver transplant community. Children post-OLT who have upper GI symptoms should be considered for endoscopic evaluation and biopsy to exclude EE.

Resting energy expenditure in children with inflammatory bowel disease.

OBJECTIVES: There is controversy in the literature regarding the effect of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) on resting energy expenditure (REE). In many cases this may have resulted from inappropriate adjustment of REE measurements to account for differences in body composition. This article considers how to appropriately adjust measurements of REE for differences in body composition between individuals with IBD. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Body composition, assessed via total body potassium to yield a measure of body cell mass (BCM), and REE measurements were performed in 41 children with Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis in the Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia. Log-log regression was used to determine the power function to which BCM should be raised to appropriately adjust REE to account for differences in body composition between children. RESULTS: The appropriate value to "adjust" BCM was found to be 0.49, with a standard error of 0.10. CONCLUSIONS: Clearly, there is a need to adjust for differences in body composition, or at the very least body weight, in metabolic studies in children with IBD. We suggest that raising BCM to the power of 0.5 is both a numerically convenient and a statistically valid way of achieving this aim. Under circumstances in which the measurement of BCM is not available, raising body weight to the power of 0.5 remains appropriate. The important issue of whether REE is changed in cases of IBD can then be appropriately addressed.

'Free' surfactant in gastric aspirates and bronchoalveolar lavage in children with and without reflux oesophagitis.

AIM: Dipalmitoylphosphatidycholine (DPPC) is the characteristic and main constituent of surfactant. Adsorption of surfactant to epithelial surfaces may be important in the masking of receptors. The aims of the study were to (i) compare the quantity of free DPPC in the airways and gastric aspirates of children with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GORD) to those without and (ii) describe the association between free DPPC levels with airway cellular profile and capsaicin cough sensitivity. METHODS: Children aged <14 years were defined as 'coughers' if a history of cough in association with their GORD symptoms was elicited before gastric aspirates and nonbronchoscopic bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) were obtained during elective flexible upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. GORD was defined as histological presence of reflux oesophagitis. Spirometry and capsaicin cough-sensitivity test was carried out in children aged >6 years before the endoscopy. RESULTS: Median age of the 68 children was 9 years (interquartile range (IQR) 7.2). Median DPPC level in BAL of children with cough (72.7 microg/mL) was similar to noncoughers (88.5). There was also no significant difference in DPPC levels in both BAL and gastric aspirates of children classified according to presence of GORD. There was no correlation between DPPC levels and cellular counts or capsaicin cough-sensitivity outcome measures. CONCLUSION: We conclude that free DPPC levels in the airways and gastric aspirate is not influenced by presence of cough or GORD defined by histological presence of reflux oesophagitis. Whether quantification of adsorbed surfactant differs in these groups remain unknown. Free DPPC is unlikely to have a role in masking of airway receptors.

Airway cellularity, lipid laden macrophages and microbiology of gastric juice and airways in children with reflux oesophagitis.

BACKGROUND: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GORD) can cause respiratory disease in children from recurrent aspiration of gastric contents. GORD can be defined in several ways and one of the most common method is presence of reflux oesophagitis. In children with GORD and respiratory disease, airway neutrophilia has been described. However, there are no prospective studies that have examined airway cellularity in children with GORD but without respiratory disease. The aims of the study were to compare (1) BAL cellularity and lipid laden macrophage index (LLMI) and, (2) microbiology of BAL and gastric juices of children with GORD (G+) to those without (G-). METHODS: In 150 children aged < 14-years, gastric aspirates and bronchoscopic airway lavage (BAL) were obtained during elective flexible upper endoscopy. GORD was defined as presence of reflux oesophagitis on distal oesophageal biopsies. RESULTS: BAL neutrophil% in G- group (n = 63) was marginally but significantly higher than that in the G+ group (n = 77), (median of 7.5 and 5 respectively, p = 0.002). Lipid laden macrophage index (LLMI), BAL percentages of lymphocyte, eosinophil and macrophage were similar between groups. Viral studies were negative in all, bacterial cultures positive in 20.7% of BALs and in 5.3% of gastric aspirates. BAL cultures did not reflect gastric aspirate cultures in all but one child. CONCLUSION: In children without respiratory disease, GORD defined by presence of reflux oesophagitis, is not associated with BAL cellular profile or LLMI abnormality. Abnormal microbiology of the airways, when present, is not related to reflux oesophagitis and does not reflect that of gastric juices.

Bone mineral density in Australian children, adolescents and adults with cystic fibrosis: a controlled cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Low bone mineral density (BMD) is recognised in individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF) although the pathogenesis remains unclear. The aims of this study were to compare BMD over a broad continuum of Australian individuals with CF with healthy controls and to examine the relationship between BMD and clinical parameters including physical activity, nutrition, and vitamin D levels. METHODS: BMD of the lumbar spine (LS), total body (TB), femoral neck (FN), cortical wrist (R33%), and distal wrist (RUD) was examined in 153 individuals with CF aged 5.3-55.8 years (84 males) and in 149 local controls aged 5.6-48.3 years (66 males) using dual energy x ray absorptiometry. Anthropometric variables, body cell mass, markers of disease severity, corticosteroid usage, measures of physical activity, dietary calcium and caloric intake and serum vitamin D were assessed and related to BMD. RESULTS: Compared with controls, mean BMD was not significantly different in children aged 5-10 years with CF. Adolescents (females 11-18 years, males 11-20 years) had reduced TB and R33% BMD when adjusted for age, sex, and height (difference in BMD (g/cm2) adjusted means between control and CF: TB=0.04 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.07); R33%=0.03 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.06)). BMD was reduced at all sites except R33% in adults (difference in BMD (g/cm2) adjusted means between control and CF: TB=0.05 (95% CI 0.02 to 0.09); LS=0.08 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.14); FN=0.09 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.15); RUD=0.03 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.05)). In children/adolescents BMD was weakly associated with nutritional status and disease severity. CONCLUSIONS: BMD was normal in a well nourished group of prepubertal children with CF. A BMD deficit appears to evolve during adolescence and becomes more marked in adults. Individuals with CF should optimise nutrition, partake in physical activity, and maximise lung health in order to optimise BMD. Further longitudinal studies are required to understand the evolution of reduced BMD in young people and adults with CF.

Acute liver failure in children: A regional experience.

OBJECTIVE: To review the outcome of acute liver failure (ALF) and the effect of liver transplantation in children in Australia. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective review was conducted of all paediatric patients referred with acute liver failure between 1985 and 2000 to the Queensland Liver Transplant Service, a paediatric liver transplant centre based at the Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, that is one of three paediatric transplant centres in Australia. RESULTS: Twenty-six patients were referred with ALF. Four patients did not require transplantation and recovered with medical therapy while two were excluded because of irreversible neurological changes and died. Of the 20 patients considered for transplant, three refused for social and/or religious reasons, with 17 patients listed for transplantation. One patient recovered spontaneously and one died before receiving a transplant. There were 15 transplants of which 40% (6/15) were < 2 years old. Sixty-seven per cent (10/15) survived > 1 month after transplantation. Forty per cent (6/15) survived more than 6 months after transplant. There were only four long-term survivors after transplant for ALF (27%). Overall, 27% (6/22) of patients referred with ALF survived. Of the 16 patients that died, 44% (7/16) were from neurological causes. Most of these were from cerebral oedema but two patients transplanted for valproate hepatotoxicity died from neurological disease despite good graft function. CONCLUSIONS: Irreversible neurological disease remains a major cause of death in children with ALF. We recommend better patient selection and early referral and transfer to a transplant centre before onset of irreversible neurological disease to optimize outcome of children transplanted for ALF.

Randomised controlled trial of sucrose by mouth for the relief of infant crying after immunisation.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of sucrose solution given by mouth on infant crying times and measures of distress in the immunisation clinic. DESIGN: Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial of sucrose solution 75% wt/vol v sterile water as a control. SETTING: The immunisation clinic of the Women's and Children's Hospital, Adelaide. PATIENTS: A total of 107 healthy infants attending for 2, 4, or 6 month immunisations with polio by mouth (Sabin), intramuscular diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTP), and intramuscular Haemophilus influenzae type b were randomised to receive 2 ml 75% sucrose solution or sterile water by mouth before the two injections. METHODS: The duration of infant crying was recorded during and immediately after two intramuscular immunisations and infant distress was assessed by a visual analogue scale (Oucher scores) independently by a nurse and a parent. RESULTS: The administration of 2 ml 75% sucrose solution by mouth reduced the infant crying time and Oucher distress scores after immunisation with DTP/H influenzae type b. CONCLUSIONS: Infant immunisation by intramuscular injection is a distressing procedure for infants and parents. Sucrose solution at a high concentration reduces infant distress and is safe and clinically useful in this setting.

Bowel dysfunction in cystic fibrosis: importance of breath testing.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prevalence of carbohydrate malabsorption and bacterial overgrowth in children with cystic fibrosis (CF) and abnormal stool pattern referred for breath hydrogen testing. METHODS: Results from 89 tests using lactose, sucrose and lactulose in 54 children with CF were compared with 5430 tests on children with non-CF-related stool abnormalities. RESULTS: Children with CF were more frequently unable to ferment lactulose to hydrogen (39% vs. 20%, P<0.03); they had significantly longer oro-caecal transit times (mean 99 vs. 68 min, P<0.0003); they had a higher incidence of bacterial overgrowth (32% vs. 7%, P<0.003) and sucrose malabsorption (47% vs. 14.5%, P<0.004); but they had no increase in lactose malabsorption (40% vs. 31%). Children with bacterial overgrowth in both groups had longer transit times (CF 123 min, non-CF 108 min) compared to the non-CF children without overgrowth (68 min) and reference normal children (69 min). CONCLUSIONS: Bacterial overgrowth and carbohydrate malabsorption, particularly of sucrose, should be considered when assessing children with CF and abnormal stool patterns.

Helicobacter pylori in an institution for disabled children in Hong Kong.

Anti-Helicobacter pylori antibodies were determined in 157 institutionalised Cantonese children, mean age 9.5 +/- 3.9 (SD) years, with profound neurodevelopmental disabilities. Eighty-seven (55.4%) were H. pylori seropositive compared with four of 50 (8%, P > 0.0002) of an age-matched control group, mean age 7.2 +/- 4.3 (SD) years. Eight of 15 seropositive children with a recent history of upper gastrointestinal bleeding underwent endoscopy and in all cases gastric infection with H.pylori was confirmed. Anthropometric data from institutionalised children revealed marked malnutrition but showed no significant difference between seropositive and seronegative children. Disabled children receiving long-term residential care in Hong Kong are confirmed to be at increased risk of H.pylori infection.

Molecular epidemiology of Escherichia coli diarrhea in children in Hong Kong.

This pediatric hospital-based study of 388 diarrhea cases and 306 controls analyzed predominant E. coli colonies from primary culture (253 cases and 177 controls) with eight DNA probes for enteropathogenic, enterotoxigenic, enteroaggregative, and diffusely adherent E. coli. Only enteropathogenic E. coli adherence factor was identified significantly more frequently in cases (10) than in controls (0).

Aetiology of acute diarrhoea in hospitalized children in Hong Kong.

To determine the role of enteric pathogens in acute childhood diarrhoea in Hong Kong, 388 children with diarrhoea and 306 children of similar age without diarrhoea were evaluated in a hospital-based study during a one-year period from August 1994 to July 1995. Of the diarrhoeal cases, 55% were under 1 year and 95% were below 5 years of age. On admission, 22% had some dehydration but none was severely dehydrated. All children were well nourished. Oyer 60% of children with diarrhoea had one or more pathogens in their stool. Rotavirus was the most commonly isolated pathogen (34.6%), followed by Salmonella (23.3%), Campylobacter (4.7%) and Shigella (2.1%). Rotavirus was not assessed in the controls and was detected mainly during the winter months December to February. Bacterial pathogens were identified more commonly in diarrhoea patients (30%) than in controls (5.6%) (P < 0.001). Despite rapid recent socioeconomic development in Hong Kong, non-typhoidal Salmonella diarrhoea remains a significant local problem in infants under 1 year. Further detailed assessment of the transmission and prevention of this infection is required.

Bacterial contaminated breast milk and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm twins.

A pair of preterm twins developed fatal necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) in association with Staphylococcus epidermidis septicaemia after receiving contaminated expressed breast milk (EBM). S. epidermidis NEC can be associated with severe bowel inflammation, high morbidity and mortality. Breast milk is the most suitable nutrient for preterm infants but EBM should undergo regular screening for bacterial overgrowth. We urge caution before administering EBM found to be heavily contaminated with S. epidermidis to preterm infants.