Introducing the Power In Nepali Girls (PING) empowerment scale.

The multi-dimensional concept of empowerment is context specific, uniquely defined in various cultures, and challenging to measure. The aim of this study was to develop a scale for measuring empowerment among adolescent girls in Nepal. Twenty-nine items related to empowerment were drawn from formative, participatory research conducted in southern Nepal to comprise a draft empowerment scale. A case/control survey among 300 adolescent Nepali girls was then conducted to refine the scale. Factor analysis determined the most parsimonious scale and identified the underlying structure of items, resulting in the The Power In Nepali Girls (PING), a two-factor, 16-item empowerment scale. Factor 1 items address decision-making power and treatment in family and society. Factor 2 items address knowledge, education, and skills development. We used the 16-item scale to assess the impact of a social and financial skills program on empowerment among adolescent girls residing in southern Nepal. The PING scale is a culturally- and population-specific measure that can be used to quantify the impact of empowerment programs in Nepal among adolescent girls. The methods used also serve as a template for future work aiming to design context-specific measures of empowerment using community-engaged approaches.

Human Papillomavirus, Related Diseases, and Vaccination: Knowledge and Awareness Among Health Care Students and Professionals in Nepal.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common sexually transmitted disease worldwide. While burden of HPV-associated cancers and mortality is higher in low-income countries, there is limited data about knowledge of it among health care students and professionals. We assessed awareness and knowledge of HPV, its related diseases, and HPV vaccine among 333 participants, composed of 146 medical students (MSs) and professionals (MPs) and 187 nursing students (NSs) and professionals (NPs) using a 40-question survey between July 2018 and February 2019. Surveys were conducted in English language using both paper and an online version. Most participants reported that they had heard of HPV and cervical cancer. However, 91.76% of MPs and 77.97% of MSs, but only 41.11% of NPs and 36.17% NSs reported knowing that HPV types 16 and 18 caused cervical cancer. Likewise, about two-thirds of MPs and MSs reported having the knowledge that HPV 6 and 11 caused genital warts versus only a little over one-fourth of NPs and NSs. Only 55.91% of NPs and 51.61% of NSs were aware that HPV could cause cancer in both men and women, whereas 42.35% of MPs, 64.41% of MSs, 41.76% of NPs, and 40.66% of NSs were aware that the vaccine could be given to both boys and girls. While medical professionals were relatively more knowledgeable about HPV and related diseases, overall, knowledge about the HPV vaccine was low among all groups. This knowledge gap is concerning and warrants further attention to fight HPV-related public health burden in Nepal.

Is criminalization the answer? Perspectives of community members and police on menstrual seclusion policy in Far-West Nepal.

Chhaupadi is a form of menstrual seclusion practiced in Nepal in which women and girls are isolated during their menstrual cycles and follow numerous restrictions. The tradition dates back centuries and can have serious physical and mental health consequences. While the practice was criminalized in 2017 with fines and jail time, this legislative action comes after more than a decade of legal history, from an initial ban in 2006, to declaring it a form of violence against women in 2009, and finally, its criminalization in 2017. Exploring levels of awareness regarding the 2017 chhaupadi criminalization, perceptions of the legal penalties, and whether or not criminalization will lead to behaviour change are imperative next steps for informing the development of evidence-based interventions targeting chhaupadi. In this qualitative investigation conducted in Kalikot district, six focus group discussions and 33 in-depth interviews were conducted with a total of 81 participants. School-going girls, girls who have dropped out of school before completing twelfth grade, mothers, fathers, teachers, health care providers, religious leaders, traditional healers, grandmothers and police participated in the study. The results indicate that criminalization is generally perceived as a positive step for initiating chhaupadi behaviour change, and one-third of participants expressed that they plan to change their behaviours after learning that chhaupadi is publishable with fines and/or jail time. However, accurate information about the criminal code is extremely low and therefore interventions ensuring communities and law enforcement are informed of the criminalization and associated penalties are urgently needed. In addition, even after its criminalization, chhaupadi behaviour change is anticipated to be gradual and is expected to require long-term interventions targeting social pressure associated with upholding the tradition and raising awareness via appropriate trainings, engaging the media, and beyond.

Collaborative Filmmaking: A Participatory, Visual Research Method.

Filmmaking is a visual method that provides a unique opportunity for generating knowledge, but few studies have applied filmmaking in public health research. In this article, we introduce Collaborative Filmmaking as a public health research method, including a description of the six steps for implementation and an illustrative example from Nepal. Collaborative Filmmaking is an embodied, participatory, and visual research method in which participants are trained to create, analyze, and screen films to answer a research question. The method is useful for exploring sensitive health topics and providing nuanced insight into practices, relationships, and spaces that are difficult to capture using existing methods; however, its use requires close attention to ethical considerations. Building upon the trajectory of other visual and community-based research methods, Collaborative Filmmaking is valuable for gathering granular details and sensory data, co-analyzing data in partnership with participants, and producing participant-generated films that serve as powerful and authentic advocacy tools.

Perception and practices of menstruation restrictions among urban adolescent girls and women in Nepal: a cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: Menstruation, a natural biologic process is associated with restrictions and superstitious beliefs in Nepal. However, factual data on women's perspectives on menstrual practices and restrictions are scarce. This study aimed to assess socio-cultural perceptions of menstrual restrictions among urban Nepalese women in the Kathmandu valley. METHODS: Using a clustered random sampling, 1342 adolescent girls and women of menstruating age (≥15 years) from three urban districts in the Kathmandu valley completed a survey related to menstrual practices and restriction. This was a cross-sectional survey study using a customized program allowing pull-down, multiple choice and open-ended questions in the Nepali language. The self-administered questionnaire consisted of 13 demographic questions and 22 questions related to menstruation, menstrual hygiene, socio-cultural taboos, beliefs and practices. Univariate descriptive statistics were reported. Unadjusted associations of socio-cultural practices with ethnicity, education, four major social classes, three major religions, marital status and family type were assessed using logistic regression models. RESULTS: More than half (59%) of the participants were aged between 15- < 25 years. The majority were Hindus (84.5%), reported not praying during menstruation (83.1%) and were encouraged by their mothers (72.1%) to practice a range of menstrual restrictions. Purifying either the kitchen, bed, bedsheets or other household things on the fourth day of menstruation was reported by 66.1% of the participants, and 45.4% saw menstruation as a "bother" or "curse." There were differences among social classes, where participants of the Janajati caste, an indigenous group, were more likely to enter places of worship [OR (95%CI): 1.74 (1.06-2.86)] and pray [OR (95%CI): 1.79 (1.18-2.71)] while menstruating, compared to the Brahmins. Participants with a master's degree were more likely to pray while menstruating, compared to participants with less than a high school education [OR (95%CI): 2.83 (1.61-4.96)]. CONCLUSION: This study throws light on existing social discriminations, deep-rooted cultural and religious superstitions among women, and gender inequalities in the urban areas of Kathmandu valley in Nepal. Targeted education and awareness are needed to make changes and balance between cultural and social practices during menstruation.

Strengthening health care worker engagement with early adolescence in low- and middle-income countries: an overdue area for action.

The very young adolescent population (ages 10-14) is currently under-served by health care systems, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Although there is a substantial and growing effort to reach adolescents with the health services and commodities they need, such efforts often overlook the period of early adolescence given this population's lower vulnerability to risk-taking behaviors. However, early adolescence is a period of significant change, with the onset of puberty introducing physiological, emotional, and social changes in girls' and boys' lives. This period also represents a time of intensifying gendered norms, and the transition of youth from childhood focused health care (e.g. deworming programs, nutrition interventions) to additional mid- and older adolescent related care [e.g. human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine, and contraceptive provision). Strengthening young adolescents' engagement with health care workers around preventative and promotive health behaviors could have profound impacts on their health and wellbeing, which in turn could have cascading effects across the course of their lives. Critically, young adolescents would gain trust in health care systems, and be more likely to return when significant health issues arise later in adolescence or adulthood. Such an effort requires sensitizing health care workers and building their capacity to respond to young adolescents' unique needs, by defining a package of actions that they are mandated to provide, training them, providing them with desk reference tools, and putting in place systems to provide supportive supervision and collaborative learning on the one hand, and encouraging caregivers to connect their pubescent-aged boys and girls with the health care system, on the other hand. This paper presents an argument for increased focus in particular on building attitudes and capacities of health care workers on engaging with early adolescents, applying Principle 3 of the Society of Adolescent Medicine's position paper entitled "Health Care Reform and Adolescents."

Cervical Cancer and Human Papillomavirus Vaccine Awareness Among Married Bhutanese Refugee and Nepali Women in Eastern Nepal.

This study examined the sexually transmitted infections (STIs), cervical cancer, and human papillomavirus virus (HPV) vaccine-related awareness and knowledge among married Bhutanese refugee and Nepali women living in eastern Nepal. Participants were recruited from a women's health camp in Jhapa District in eastern Nepal. A demographic and health survey with questions on STIs, cervical cancer and HPV vaccine was administered to consenting participants. Women who were born in Bhutan or living in the United Nations administered refugee camps were classified as Bhutanese. Of the 630 participants, 14.3% of participants were Bhutanese and the mean age was 38.8 ± 8.2 years. A higher proportion of Bhutanese than Nepali women reported a lack of cervical cancer awareness (42.0% vs. 30.7%; p = 0.036). Only 21.5% of the participants knew HPV as the cause of cervical cancer; 13.9% were aware of an HPV vaccine; and 96% reported that they would have their children vaccinated against HPV if the vaccine was available free of cost to them. In multivariable analyses, the lack of awareness about STIs was directly associated with the lack of cervical cancer awareness [odds ratio (OR) 4.50; 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.99-6.77] and inversely associated with HPV-vaccine awareness [OR 0.53; 95% CI 0.29-0.97]. Low cervical cancer and HPV vaccine awareness and knowledge among Nepali and Bhutanese women in eastern Nepal highlight the need for increasing awareness and knowledge in the context of STIs and reproductive health education. Increasing awareness and knowledge of HPV, its role in cervical cancer, and prevention modalities is a first critical step for implementing successful targeted primary cervical cancer prevention measures focused on behavior modification and vaccine administration.

The Political, Research, Programmatic, and Social Responses to Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights in the 25 Years Since the International Conference on Population and Development.

Among the ground-breaking achievements of the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) was its call to place adolescent sexual and reproductive health (ASRH) on global health and development agendas. This article reviews progress made in low- and middle-income countries in the 25 years since the ICPD in six areas central to ASRH-adolescent pregnancy, HIV, child marriage, violence against women and girls, female genital mutilation, and menstrual hygiene and health. It also examines the ICPD's contribution to the progress made. The article presents epidemiologic levels and trends; political, research, programmatic and social responses; and factors that helped or hindered progress. To do so, it draws on research evidence and programmatic experience and the expertise and experiences of a wide number of individuals, including youth leaders, in numerous countries and organizations. Overall, looking across the six health topics over a 25-year trajectory, there has been great progress at the global and regional levels in putting adolescent health, and especially adolescent sexual and reproductive health and rights, higher on the agenda, raising investment in this area, building the epidemiologic and evidence-base, and setting norms to guide investment and action. At the national level, too, there has been progress in formulating laws and policies, developing strategies and programs and executing them, and engaging communities and societies in moving the agenda forward. Still, progress has been uneven across issues and geography. Furthermore, it has raced ahead sometimes and has stalled at others. The ICPD's Plan of Action contributed to the progress made in ASRH not just because of its bold call in 1994 but also because it provided a springboard for advocacy, investment, action, and research that remains important to this day.

Assessing the Role of Caste/Ethnicity in Predicting Menstrual Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices in Nepal.

Menstruation is a natural, physiological process, but it can be a challenging experience for millions of women around the world. In Nepal, a geographically small yet diverse country of 125 caste/ethnic groups, understanding how caste/ethnicity impacts menstrual health is critical for developing context-specific interventions to improve women's health. A community-based, cross-sectional survey was conducted with 679 women and girls between the ages of 13-51 from the country's most populous castes/ethnic groups. Forty eight percent had high menstrual knowledge, 60% had positive menstrual attitudes, and 59% had positive menstrual practices. Caste/ethnicity was a significant predictor of menstrual knowledge and practices. The caste/ethnic groups Tarai/Madhesi/Other, Newar, Janajati, and Muslim all had statistically significant fewer odds of positive menstrual practices compared to Brahman/Chhetri (high caste groups), with Janajati (indigenous ethnic groups) having the poorest outcomes. Despite Nepal making impressive advances in health, certain caste/ethnic groups have fallen behind in terms of menstrual health outcomes. Consequently, blanket menstrual health programs may not be sufficient for improving menstrual knowledge and practices for all. Future programming should consider the use of local languages and context-specific content that incorporates indigenous beliefs, as well as cultivate partnerships with indigenous health organizations, and develop outcome indicators disaggregated by caste/ethnicity to ensure improved menstrual health for all.

Spatial analysis of the regional variation of reproductive tract infections and spousal migration correlates in Nepal.

Nepal has a diverse geographic landscape that could potentially create clustered subpopulations with regional socio-cultures that could result in differential health outcomes. With an alarming rise in married male populations migrating for work, it is possible that these migrants are engaged in risky sexual behaviour, putting their wives at risk for infectious disease outcomes, including reproductive tract infections (RTI), when they return home. The prevalence of male migration varies by geographic region in Nepal and this variation could potentially contribute to different RTI rates. Using a cross-sectional dataset (the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey) including 9607 married women, we investigated geospatial and socio-cultural factors associated with the symptoms of RTIs with a focus on the husbands' migration status. Choropleth maps were created to illustrate areas with high percentages of RTIs that correlated with migration patterns. Overall, 31.9% of the husbands were migrating for work. After adjusting for wealth, contraception use, age at first marriage, urban/rural status and husband's education, women whose husbands had been absent for a year or more in Nepal's Mid-West region (OR 1.93 95%, CI 1.02-3.67) or Far-West region (OR 2.89 95%, CI 1.24-6.73) were more likely to report RTI-like symptoms than others. Our results suggest a potential association between husbands' migration status and Nepali women reporting RTI symptoms by geographic regions. However, further research is needed to put this outcome on a stronger footing with respect to this under-studied population, specifically in the context of geographical variation.

High-risk human papillomavirus infection and abnormal cervical cytology among Nepali and Bhutanese refugee women living in eastern Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Cervical cancer is the leading cause of cancer morbidity and mortality among women in Nepal and Bhutan. Data on high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) infection and cervical abnormalities among Nepali and Bhutanese women are sparse. The objectives of this study were to assess and compare the prevalence of HR-HPV infection and cervical abnormalities among Nepali and Bhutanese women living in Jhapa District in eastern Nepal; and examine the risk factors for HR-HPV infection and cervical abnormalities in those women. METHODS: Study participants were recruited from a women's health camp organized by NFCC-International, a Nepal-based non-governmental organization, in 2014. Consenting participants were administered a demographic and health questionnaire and cervico-vaginal specimens collected. Both self-collected and clinician-collected cervico-vaginal specimens were tested for HR-HPV infection. Cytologic exam was performed on clinician-collected samples and cervical cytology results were categorized according to the Bethesda classification. A participant was classified as a Bhutanese if they were either born in Bhutan or currently lived in one of the United Nations administered Bhutanese refugee camps in Jhapa; otherwise, the participant was classified as a Nepali. RESULTS: Of the 647 study participants, 15.9% were Bhutanese women living in refugee camps and the overall age (± standard deviation) was 38.8 ± 8.2 years. The prevalence of HR-HPV infection was 8.9% and abnormal cervical cytology was 7.1% respectively, with no significant difference in HR-HPV positivity (p = 0.399) or abnormal cervical cytology (p = 0.698) between Nepali and Bhutanese women. Compared to women whose husbands had not migrated for employment, women whose husbands had migrated outside of the district had 3.30 times (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.13-9.64) the odds of being HR-HPV positive and women whose husbands had migrated outside the country had 2.92 times (95% CI: 1.32-6.49) the odds of having abnormal cervical cytology. CONCLUSIONS: HR-HPV positivity and abnormal cervical cytology were similar among Nepali and Bhutanese women. Husbands migrating for employment within or outside the country was a significant risk factor for high-risk HPV infection and cervical cytology, indicating the important role spousal behavior may play in HR-HPV acquisition and cervical abnormalities among these women.

Genomic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16) in Nepal.

OBJECTIVES/BACKGROUND: Sequence variants in HPV16 confer differences in oncogenic potential; however, to date there have not been any HPV sequence studies performed in Nepal. The objective of this study was to characterize HPV16 viral genome sequences from Nepal compared to a reference sequence in order to determine their lineages. Additionally, we sought to determine if five High-grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesion (HSIL) subjects were genetically distinct from the non-HSIL subjects. METHODS: DNA was isolated from exfoliated cervical cells from 17 individuals in Nepal who were previously identified to be HPV16-positive. A custom HPV16 Ion Ampliseq panel of multiplexed degenerate primers was designed that generated 47 overlapping amplicons and covered 99% of the viral genome for all known HPV16 variant lineages. All sequence data were processed through a custom quality control and analysis pipeline of sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS: There were high similarities across the genomes, with two major indels observed in the non-coding region between E5 and L2. Compared to the PAVE reference HPV16 genome, there were up to 9, 4, 38, 27, 8, 7, 52, and 32 nucleotide variants in the E6, E7, E1, E2, E4, E5, L2, and L1 genes in the Nepalese samples, respectively. Based on sequence variation, HPV16 from Nepal falls across the A, C, and D lineages in this study. We found no evidence of genetic distinctness between HSIL and non-HSIL subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The evolutionary and pathological characteristics of the representative HPV16 genomes from Nepal seem similar to results from other parts of the world and provide the basis for further studies.

Spousal migration and human papillomavirus infection among women in rural western Nepal.

BACKGROUND: In April 2014 we investigated the association of migration of a woman's husband with her high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) infection status and her abnormal cervical cytology status in the Achham district of rural Far-Western Nepal. METHODS: Women were surveyed and screened for HR-HPV during a health camp conducted by the Nepal Fertility Care Center. Univariate and multivariable statistical tests were performed to determine the association of a husband's migration status with HR-HPV infection and cervical cytology status. RESULTS: In 265 women, the prevalence of HR-HPV was 7.5% (20/265), while the prevalence of abnormal cervical cytology, defined using the Bethesda system as atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance or worse, was 7.6% (19/251). Half of the study participants (50.8%, 130/256) had husbands who had reported migrating for work at least once. Women aged ≤34 years were significantly less likely to test positive for HR-HPV than women aged >34 years (OR 0.22, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.71). HR-HPV infection and abnormal cervical cytology status were not directly associated with a husband's migration. CONCLUSION: Older women were found to have a higher prevalence of HPV than younger women. It is possible that a husband's migration for work could be delaying HR-HPV infections in married women until an older age.

Knowledge and awareness of human papillomavirus (HPV), cervical cancer and HPV vaccine among women in two distinct Nepali communities.

BACKGROUND: This study assessed human papillomavirus (HPV), cervical cancer, and HPV vaccine knowledge and awareness among women in two sub-populations in Nepal - Khokana, a traditional Newari village in the Lalitpur District about eight kilometers south of Kathmandu, and Sanphebagar, a village development committee within Achham District in rural Far-Western Nepal. METHODS: Study participants were recruited during health camps conducted by Nepal Fertility Care Center, a Nepali non-governmental organization. Experienced staff administered a Nepali language survey instrument that included questions on socio-demographics, reproductive health and knowledge on HPV, cervical cancer, and the HPV vaccine. RESULTS: Of the 749 participants, 387 (51.7%) were from Khokana and 362 (48.3%) were from Sanphebagar. Overall, 53.3% (n=372) of women were aware of cervical cancer with a significant difference between Khokana and Sanphebagar (63.3% vs 43.0%; p=0.001). Overall, 15.4% (n=107) of women had heard of HPV and 32% (n=34) of these women reported having heard of the HPV vaccine. If freely available, 77.5% of the women reported willingness to have their children vaccinated against HPV. Factors associated with cervical cancer awareness included knowledge of HPV (Khokana: Odds Ratio (OR)=24.5; (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 3.1-190.2, Sanphebagar: OR=14.8; 95% CI: 3.7-58.4)) and sexually transmitted infections (Khokana: OR=6.18; 95% CI: 3.1-12.4; Sanphebagar: OR=17.0; 95% CI: 7.3- 39.7) among other risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge and awareness of HPV, cervical cancer, and the HPV vaccine remains low among women in Khokana and Sanphebagar. Acceptance of a freely available HPV vaccine for children was high, indicating potentially high uptake rates in these communities.

Assessment of high-risk human papillomavirus infections using clinician- and self-collected cervical sampling methods in rural women from far western Nepal.

INTRODUCTION: Nepal has one of the highest cervical cancer rates in South Asia. Only a few studies in populations from urban areas have investigated type specific distribution of human papillomavirus (HPV) in Nepali women. Data on high-risk HPV (HR-HPV) types are not currently available for rural populations in Nepal. We aimed to assess the distribution of HR- HPV among rural Nepali women while assessing self-collected and clinician-collected cervico-vaginal specimens as sample collection methods for HPV screening. METHODS: Study participants were recruited during a health camp conducted by Nepal Fertility Care Center in Achham District of rural far western Nepal. Women of reproductive age completed a socio-demographic and clinical questionnaire, and provided two specimens; one cervical-vaginal specimen using a self-collection method and another cervical specimen collected by health camp auxiliary nurse midwives during a pelvic examination. All samples were tested for 14 different HR-HPV mRNA and also specific for HPV16/18/45 mRNA. RESULTS: Of 261 women with both clinician- and self-collected cervical samples, 25 tested positive for HR-HPV, resulting in an overall HR-HPV prevalence of 9.6% (95% confidence Interval [CI]: 6.3-13.8). The overall Kappa value assessing agreement between clinician- and self-collected tests was 0.62 (95% CI: 0.43-0.81), indicating a "good" level of agreement. Abnormal cytology was reported for 8 women. One woman identified with squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and 7 women with high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL). Seven of the 8 women tested positive for HR-HPV (87.5%) in clinician-collected samples and 6 in self-collected samples (75.0%). CONCLUSION: This is the first study to assess HR-HPV among rural Nepali women. Self-collected sampling methods should be the subject of additional research in Nepal for screening HR-HPV, associated with pre-cancer lesions and cancer, in women in rural areas with limited access to health services.