NLRP3 Cys126 palmitoylation by ZDHHC7 promotes inflammasome activation.

Nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome hyperactivation contributes to many human chronic inflammatory diseases, and understanding how NLRP3 inflammasome is regulated can provide strategies to treat inflammatory diseases. Here, we demonstrate that NLRP3 Cys126 is palmitoylated by zinc finger DHHC-type palmitoyl transferase 7 (ZDHHC7), which is critical for NLRP3-mediated inflammasome activation. Perturbing NLRP3 Cys126 palmitoylation by ZDHHC7 knockout, pharmacological inhibition, or modification site mutation diminishes NLRP3 activation in macrophages. Furthermore, Cys126 palmitoylation is vital for inflammasome activation in vivo. Mechanistically, ZDHHC7-mediated NLRP3 Cys126 palmitoylation promotes resting NLRP3 localizing on the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and activated NLRP3 on the dispersed TGN, which is indispensable for recruitment and oligomerization of the adaptor ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD). The activation of NLRP3 by ZDHHC7 is different from the termination effect mediated by ZDHHC12, highlighting versatile regulatory roles of S-palmitoylation. Our study identifies an important regulatory mechanism of NLRP3 activation that suggests targeting ZDHHC7 or the NLRP3 Cys126 residue as a potential therapeutic strategy to treat NLRP3-related human disorders.

Sirt2 inhibition improves gut epithelial barrier integrity and protects mice from colitis.

Sirt2 is a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent protein lysine deacylase that can remove both acetyl group and long-chain fatty acyl groups from lysine residues of many proteins. It was reported to affect inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) symptoms in a mouse model. However, conflicting roles were reported, with genetic knockout aggravating while pharmacological inhibition alleviating IBD symptoms. These seemingly conflicting reports cause confusion and deter further efforts in developing Sirt2 inhibitors as a potential treatment strategy for IBD. We investigated these conflicting reports and elucidated the role of Sirt2 in the mouse model of IBD. We essentially replicated these conflicting results and confirmed that Sirt2 inhibitors' protective effect is not through off-targets as two very different Sirt2 inhibitors (TM and AGK2) showed similar protection in the IBD mouse model. We believe that the differential effects of inhibitors and knockout are due to the fact that the Sirt2 inhibitors only inhibit some but not all the activities of Sirt2. This hypothesis is confirmed by the observation that a PROTAC degrader of Sirt2 did not protect mice in the IBD model, similar to Sirt2 knockout. Our study provides an interesting example where genetic knockout and pharmacological inhibition do not align and emphasizes the importance of developing substrate-dependent inhibitors. Importantly, we showed that the effect of Sirt2 inhibition in IBD is through regulating the gut epithelium barrier by inhibiting Arf6-mediated endocytosis of E-cadherin, a protein important for the intestinal epithelial integrity. This mechanistic understanding further supports Sirt2 as a promising therapeutic target for treating IBD.

GS-441524-Diphosphate-Ribose Derivatives as Nanomolar Binders and Fluorescence Polarization Tracers for SARS-CoV-2 and Other Viral Macrodomains.

Viral macrodomains that can bind to or hydrolyze protein adenosine diphosphate ribosylation (ADP-ribosylation) have emerged as promising targets for antiviral drug development. Many inhibitor development efforts have been directed against the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 macrodomain 1 (SARS-CoV-2 Mac1). However, potent inhibitors for viral macrodomains are still lacking, with the best inhibitors still in the micromolar range. Based on GS-441524, a remdesivir precursor, and our previous studies, we have designed and synthesized potent binders of SARS-CoV-2 Mac1 and other viral macrodomains including those of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), and Chikungunya virus (CHIKV). We show that the 1'-CN group of GS-441524 promotes binding to all four viral macrodomains tested while capping the 1″-OH of GS-441524-diphosphate-ribose with a simple phenyl ring further contributes to binding. Incorporating these two structural features, the best binders show 20- to 6000-fold increases in binding affinity over ADP-ribose for SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, VEEV, and CHIKV macrodomains. Moreover, building on these potent binders, we have developed two highly sensitive fluorescence polarization tracers that only require nanomolar proteins and can effectively resolve the binding affinities of nanomolar inhibitors. Our findings and probes described here will facilitate future development of more potent viral macrodomain inhibitors.

Protein lipidation in cancer: mechanisms, dysregulation and emerging drug targets.

Protein lipidation describes a diverse class of post-translational modifications (PTMs) that is regulated by over 40 enzymes, targeting more than 1,000 substrates at over 3,000 sites. Lipidated proteins include more than 150 oncoproteins, including mediators of cancer initiation, progression and immunity, receptor kinases, transcription factors, G protein-coupled receptors and extracellular signalling proteins. Lipidation regulates the physical interactions of its protein substrates with cell membranes, regulating protein signalling and trafficking, and has a key role in metabolism and immunity. Targeting protein lipidation, therefore, offers a unique approach to modulate otherwise undruggable oncoproteins; however, the full spectrum of opportunities to target the dysregulation of these PTMs in cancer remains to be explored. This is attributable in part to the technological challenges of identifying the targets and the roles of protein lipidation. The early stage of drug discovery for many enzymes in the pathway contrasts with efforts for drugging similarly common PTMs such as phosphorylation and acetylation, which are routinely studied and targeted in relevant cancer contexts. Here, we review recent advances in identifying targetable protein lipidation pathways in cancer, the current state-of-the-art in drug discovery, and the status of ongoing clinical trials, which have the potential to deliver novel oncology therapeutics targeting protein lipidation.

Iso-ADP-Ribose Fluorescence Polarization Probe for the Screening of RNF146 WWE Domain Inhibitors.

Poly-ADP-ribosylation is an important protein post-translational modification with diverse biological consequences. After binding poly-ADP-ribose on axis inhibition protein 1 (AXIN1) through its WWE domain, RING finger protein 146 (RNF146) can ubiquitinate AXIN1 and promote its proteasomal degradation and thus the oncogenic WNT signaling. Therefore, inhibiting the RNF146 WWE domain is a potential antitumor strategy. However, due to a lack of suitable screening methods, no inhibitors for this domain have been reported. Here, we developed a fluorescence polarization (FP)-based competition assay for the screening of RNF146 WWE inhibitors. This assay relies on a fluorescently tagged iso-ADP-ribose tracer compound, TAMRA-isoADPr. We report the design and synthesis of this tracer compound and show that it is a high-affinity tracer for the RNF146 WWE domain. This provides a convenient assay and will facilitate the development of small-molecule inhibitors for the RNF146 WWE domain.

Amino acid and protein specificity of protein fatty acylation in C. elegans.

Protein lipidation plays critical roles in regulating protein function and localization. However, the chemical diversity and specificity of fatty acyl group utilization have not been investigated using untargeted approaches, and it is unclear to what extent structures and biosynthetic origins of S-acyl moieties differ from N- and O-fatty acylation. Here, we show that fatty acylation patterns in Caenorhabditis elegans differ markedly between different amino acid residues. Hydroxylamine capture revealed predominant cysteine S-acylation with 15-methylhexadecanoic acid (isoC17:0), a monomethyl branched-chain fatty acid (mmBCFA) derived from endogenous leucine catabolism. In contrast, enzymatic protein hydrolysis showed that N-terminal glycine was acylated almost exclusively with straight-chain myristic acid, whereas lysine was acylated preferentially with two different mmBCFAs and serine was acylated promiscuously with a broad range of fatty acids, including eicosapentaenoic acid. Global profiling of fatty acylated proteins using a set of click chemistry-capable alkyne probes for branched- and straight-chain fatty acids uncovered 1,013 S-acylated proteins and 510 hydroxylamine-resistant N- or O-acylated proteins. Subsets of S-acylated proteins were labeled almost exclusively by either a branched-chain or a straight-chain probe, demonstrating acylation specificity at the protein level. Acylation specificity was confirmed for selected examples, including the S-acyltransferase DHHC-10. Last, homology searches for the identified acylated proteins revealed a high degree of conservation of acylation site patterns across metazoa. Our results show that protein fatty acylation patterns integrate distinct branches of lipid metabolism in a residue- and protein-specific manner, providing a basis for mechanistic studies at both the amino acid and protein levels.

Interactome Analysis Identifies the Role of BZW2 in Promoting Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Contact and Mitochondrial Metabolism.

Understanding the molecular functions of less-studied proteins is an important task of life science research. Despite reports of basic leucine zipper and W2 domain-containing protein 2 (BZW2) promoting cancer progression first emerging in 2017, little is known about its molecular function. Using a quantitative proteomic approach to identify its interacting proteins, we found that BZW2 interacts with both endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondrial proteins. We thus hypothesized that BZW2 localizes to and promotes the formation of ER-mitochondria contact sites and that such localization would promote calcium transport from ER to the mitochondria and promote ATP production. Indeed, we found that BZW2 localized to ER-mitochondria contact sites and that BZW2 knockdown decreased ER-mitochondria contact, mitochondrial calcium levels, and ATP production. These findings provide key insights into molecular functions of BZW2, the potential role of BZW2 in cancer progression, and highlight the utility of interactome data in understanding the function of less-studied proteins.

STAT3 palmitoylation initiates a positive feedback loop that promotes the malignancy of hepatocellular carcinoma cells in mice.

Constitutive activation of the transcription factor STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) contributes to the malignancy of many cancers such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and is associated with poor prognosis. STAT3 activity is increased by the reversible palmitoylation of Cys108 by the palmitoyltransferase DHHC7 (encoded by ZDHHC7). Here, we investigated the consequences of S-palmitoylation of STAT3 in HCC. Increased ZDHHC7 abundance in HCC cases was associated with poor prognosis, as revealed by bioinformatics analysis of patient data. In HepG2 cells in vitro, DHHC7-mediated palmitoylation enhanced the expression of STAT3 target genes, including HIF1A, which encodes the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor HIF1α. Inhibiting DHHC7 decreased the S-palmitoylation of STAT3 and decreased HIF1α abundance. Furthermore, stabilization of HIF1α by cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) enabled it to promote the expression of ZDHHC7, which generated a positive feedback loop between DHHC7, STAT3, and HIF1α. Perturbing this loop reduced the growth of HCC cells in vivo. Moreover, DHHC7, STAT3, and HIF1α were all abundant in human HCC tissues. Our study identifies a pathway connecting these proteins that is initiated by S-palmitoylation, which may be broadly applicable to understanding the role of this modification in cancer.

Development and Pharmacochemical Characterization Discover a Novel Brain-Permeable HDAC11-Selective Inhibitor with Therapeutic Potential by Regulating Neuroinflammation in Mice.

Recent studies have shown that the epigenetic protein histone deacetylase 11 (HDAC11) is highly expressed in the brain and critically modulates neuroimmune functions, making it a potential therapeutic target for neurological disorders. Herein, we report the development of PB94, which is a novel HDAC11 inhibitor. PB94 exhibited potency and selectivity against HDAC11 with IC50 = 108 nM and >40-fold selectivity over other HDAC isoforms. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic evaluation indicated that PB94 possesses promising drug-like properties. Additionally, PB94 was radiolabeled with carbon-11 as [11C]PB94 for positron emission tomography (PET), which revealed significant brain uptake and metabolic properties suitable for drug development in live animals. Furthermore, we demonstrated that neuropathic pain was associated with brain upregulation of HDAC11 and that pharmacological inhibition of HDAC11 by PB94 ameliorated neuropathic pain in a mouse model. Collectively, our findings support further development of PB94 as a selective HDAC11 inhibitor for neurological indications, including pain.

A Turn-On Fluorescent Amino Acid Sensor Reveals Chloroquine's Effect on Cellular Amino Acids via Inhibiting Cathepsin L.

Maintaining homeostasis of metabolites such as amino acids is critical for cell survival. Dysfunction of nutrient balance can result in human diseases such as diabetes. Much remains to be discovered about how cells transport, store, and utilize amino acids due to limited research tools. Here we developed a novel, pan-amino acid fluorescent turn-on sensor, NS560. It detects 18 of the 20 proteogenic amino acids and can be visualized in mammalian cells. Using NS560, we identified amino acids pools in lysosomes, late endosomes, and surrounding the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Interestingly, we observed amino acid accumulation in large cellular foci after treatment with chloroquine, but not with other autophagy inhibitors. Using a biotinylated photo-cross-linking chloroquine analog and chemical proteomics, we identified Cathepsin L (CTSL) as the chloroquine target leading to the amino acid accumulation phenotype. This study establishes NS560 as a useful tool to study amino acid regulation, identifies new mechanisms of action of chloroquine, and demonstrates the importance of CTSL regulation of lysosomes.

Identification of potential HDAC11 deacylase substrates by affinity pulldown MS.

Lysine fatty acylation is a protein posttranslational modification (PTM) that has been linked to various important biological processes. HDAC11, the sole member of class IV of histone deacetylases (HDACs), has been shown to have high lysine defatty-acylase activity. In order to better understand the functions of lysine fatty acylation and its regulation by HDAC11, it is important to identify the physiological substrates of HDAC11. This can be achieved through profiling the interactome of HDAC11 using a stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) proteomics strategy. Here we describe a detailed method on using SILAC to identify the interactome of HDAC11. This method can be similarly used to identify the interactome, and thus potential substrates, of other PTM enzymes.

Use of alkyne-tagged myristic acid to detect N-terminal myristoylation.

Protein N-terminal myristoylation is a lipidic modification typically occurring to the α-amino group of N-terminal glycine residues of proteins. It is catalyzed by the N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) enzyme family. Many studies in the past three decades have highlighted the importance of N-terminal glycine myristoylation as it affects protein localization, protein-protein interaction, and protein stability, thereby regulating multiple biological processes, including immune cell signaling, cancer progression, and infections. This book chapter will present protocols for using alkyne-tagged myristic acid to detect the N-myristoylation of targeted proteins in cell lines and compare global N-myristoylation levels. We then described a protocol of SILAC proteomics that compare the levels of N-myristoylation on a proteomic scale. These assays allow for the identification of potential NMT substrates and the development of novel NMT inhibitors.

A Fluorescence Polarization Assay for Macrodomains Facilitates the Identification of Potent Inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 Macrodomain.

Viral macrodomains, which can bind to and/or hydrolyze adenine diphosphate ribose (ADP-ribose or ADPr) from proteins, have been suggested to counteract host immune response and be viable targets for the development of antiviral drugs. Therefore, developing high-throughput screening (HTS) techniques for macrodomain inhibitors is of great interest. Herein, using a novel tracer TAMRA-ADPr, an ADP-ribose compound conjugated with tetramethylrhodamine, we developed a robust fluorescence polarization assay for various viral and human macrodomains including SARS-CoV-2 Macro1, VEEV Macro, CHIKV Macro, human MacroD1, MacroD2, and PARP9 Macro2. Using this assay, we validated Z8539 (IC50 6.4 µM) and GS441524 (IC50 15.2 µM), two literature-reported small-molecule inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Macro1. Our data suggest that GS441524 is highly selective for SARS-CoV-2 Macro1 over other human and viral macrodomains. Furthermore, using this assay, we identified pNP-ADPr (ADP-ribosylated p-nitrophenol, IC50 370 nM) and TFMU-ADPr (ADP-ribosylated trifluoromethyl umbelliferone, IC50 590 nM) as the most potent SARS-CoV-2 Macro1 binders reported to date. An X-ray crystal structure of SARS-CoV-2 Macro1 in complex with TFMU-ADPr revealed how the TFMU moiety contributes to the binding affinity. Our data demonstrate that this fluorescence polarization assay is a useful addition to the HTS methods for the identification of macrodomain inhibitors.

Simultaneous inhibition of Sirtuin 3 and cholesterol homeostasis targets acute myeloid leukemia stem cells by perturbing fatty acid ß-oxidation and inducing lipotoxicity.

Outcomes for patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) remain poor due to the inability of current therapeutic regimens to fully eradicate disease-initiating leukemia stem cells (LSC). Previous studies have demonstrated that oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) is an essential process that is targetable in LSC. Sirtuin 3 (SIRT3), a mitochondrial deacetylase with a multi-faceted role in metabolic regulation, has been shown to regulate OXPHOS in cancer models; however, it has not yet been studied in the context of LSC. Thus, we sought to identify if SIRT3 is important for LSC function. Using RNAi and a SIRT3 inhibitor (YC8-02), we demonstrate that SIRT3 is a critical target for the survival of primary human LSC but is not essential for normal human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell function. In order to elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which SIRT3 is essential in LSC we combined transcriptomic, proteomic, and lipidomic approaches, showing that SIRT3 is important for LSC function through the regulation of fatty acid oxidation (FAO) which is required to support OXPHOS and ATP production in human LSC. Further, we discovered two approaches to further sensitize LSC to SIRT3 inhibition. First, we found that LSC tolerate the toxic effects of fatty acid accumulation induced by SIRT3 inhibition by upregulating cholesterol esterification. Disruption of cholesterol homeostasis sensitizes LSC to YC8-02 and potentiates LSC death. Second, SIRT3 inhibition sensitizes LSC to the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax. Together, these findings establish SIRT3 as a regulator of lipid metabolism and potential therapeutic target in primitive AML cells.

Trapoxin A Analogue as a Selective Nanomolar Inhibitor of HDAC11.

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are enzymes that regulate many important biological pathways. There is a need for the development of isoform-selective HDAC inhibitors for further biological applications. Here, we report the development of trapoxin A analogues as potent and selective inhibitors of HDAC11, an enzyme that can efficiently remove long-chain fatty acyl groups from proteins. In particular, we show that one of the trapoxin A analogues, TD034, has nanomolar potency in enzymatic assays. We show that in cells, TD034 is active at low micromolar concentrations and inhibits the defatty acylation of SHMT2, a known HDAC11 substrate. The high potency and selectivity of TD034 would permit further development of HDAC11 inhibitors for biological and therapeutic applications.

Christopher T. Walsh: A Prolific Scientist, Effective Academic Leader, and Responsive Mentor.

Dr. Christopher T. Walsh, a giant in enzymology, passed in January 2023. This In Focus briefly summarizes his numerous accomplishments in research, academic administration, scientific and industry advising, as well as teaching and mentoring of students and postdoctoral fellows. He left a rich legacy that will continue to inspire many generations of scientists.

Structural Basis of Sirtuin 6-Catalyzed Nucleosome Deacetylation.

The reversible acetylation of histone lysine residues is controlled by the action of acetyltransferases and deacetylases (HDACs), which regulate chromatin structure and gene expression. The sirtuins are a family of NAD-dependent HDAC enzymes, and one member, sirtuin 6 (Sirt6), influences DNA repair, transcription, and aging. Here, we demonstrate that Sirt6 is efficient at deacetylating several histone H3 acetylation sites, including its canonical site Lys9, in the context of nucleosomes but not free acetylated histone H3 protein substrates. By installing a chemical warhead at the Lys9 position of histone H3, we trap a catalytically poised Sirt6 in complex with a nucleosome and employ this in cryo-EM structural analysis. The structure of Sirt6 bound to a nucleosome reveals extensive interactions between distinct segments of Sirt6 and the H2A/H2B acidic patch and nucleosomal DNA, which accounts for the rapid deacetylation of nucleosomal H3 sites and the disfavoring of histone H2B acetylation sites. These findings provide a new framework for understanding how HDACs target and regulate chromatin.

Astrocyte Elevated Gene-1 Cys75 S-Palmitoylation by ZDHHC6 Regulates Its Biological Activity.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is a major risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Astrocyte elevated gene-1/Metadherin (AEG-1/MTDH) augments lipid accumulation (steatosis), inflammation, and tumorigenesis, thereby promoting the whole spectrum of this disease process. Targeting AEG-1 is a potential interventional strategy for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and HCC. Thus, proper understanding of the regulation of this molecule is essential. We found that AEG-1 is palmitoylated at residue cysteine 75 (Cys75). Mutation of Cys75 to serine (Ser) completely abolished AEG-1 palmitoylation. We identified ZDHHC6 as a palmitoyltransferase catalyzing the process in HEK293T cells. To obtain insight into how palmitoylation regulates AEG-1 function, we generated knock-in mice by CRISPR/Cas9 in which Cys75 of AEG-1 was mutated to Ser (AEG-1-C75S). No developmental or anatomical abnormality was observed between AEG-1-wild type (AEG-1-WT) and AEG-1-C75S littermates. However, global gene expression analysis by RNA-sequencing unraveled that signaling pathways and upstream regulators, which contribute to cell proliferation, motility, inflammation, angiogenesis, and lipid accumulation, were activated in AEG-1-C75S hepatocytes compared to AEG-1-WT. These findings suggest that AEG-1-C75S functions as dominant positive and that palmitoylation restricts oncogenic and NASH-promoting functions of AEG-1. We thus identify a previously unknown regulatory mechanism of AEG-1, which might help design new therapeutic strategies for NASH and HCC.

Substrate-selective small-molecule modulators of enzymes: Mechanisms and opportunities.

Small-molecule inhibitors of enzymes are widely used tools in reverse chemical genetics to probe biology and explore therapeutic opportunities. They are often compared with genetic knockdown or knockout and are expected to produce phenotypes similar to the genetic perturbations. This review aims to highlight that small molecule inhibitors of enzymes and genetic perturbations may not necessarily produce the same phenotype due to the possibility of substrate-selective or substrate-dependent effects of the inhibitors. Examples of substrate-selective inhibitors and the mechanisms for the substrate-selective effects are discussed. Substrate-selective modulators of enzymes have distinct advantages and cannot be easily replaced with biologics. Thus, they present an exciting opportunity for chemical biologists and medicinal chemists.