Vitamin C effects on 5-hydroxymethylcytosine and gene expression in osteoblasts and chondrocytes: Potential involvement of PHD2.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid, AA) is a well-known regulator of bone and cartilage metabolism. However, the mechanisms of AA's action in these tissues are only partly understood. In this study, we confirmed that AA contributes to bone and cartilage metabolism by showing decreased articular cartilage and trabecular bone in AA-deficient spontaneous fracture (sfx) mutant mice. In vitro, we found that AA exerts differential effects on chondrocyte and osteoblast differentiation. Since AA is known to increase levels of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC) and induce DNA demethylation via the ten-eleven translocases (TETs), and since prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing protein 2 (PHD2), a known mediator of AA's effects in these tissues, is part of the same enzyme family as the TETs, we next investigated whether increases in 5-hmC might mediate some of these effects. All TETs and PHDs are expressed in chondrocytes and osteoblasts, and PHD2 is localized in both the cytoplasm and nucleus of the cell, lending plausibility to the hypothesis of altered 5-hmC content in these cells. We found that AA treatment increased levels of 5-hmC in both cell types globally, notably including promoter regions of osteoblast differentiation genes. Furthermore, inhibition of PHD2 decreased 5-hmC levels in chondrocyte differentiation gene promoters, and knockdown of Phd2 in chondrocytes reduced global 5-hmC levels, suggesting for the first time that PHD2 may itself directly mediate increases in 5-hmC in chondrocyte and osteoblast genes. Further investigation of this mechanism could lead to novel therapeutic approaches to treat debilitating diseases such as osteoarthritis and osteoporosis.

Skeletal effects of nongenomic thyroid hormone receptor beta signaling.

Thyroid hormone (TH) levels increase rapidly during the prepubertal growth period in mice, and this change is necessary for endochondral ossification of the epiphyses. This effect of TH on epiphyseal chondrocyte hypertrophy is mediated via TRß1. In addition to its traditional genomic signaling role as a transcription factor, TRß1 can also exert nongenomic effects by interacting with other signaling molecules such as PI3K. To investigate the role of nongenomic TRß1 signaling in endochondral ossification, we evaluated the skeletal phenotype of TRß147F mutant mice which exhibit a normal genomic response of TRß1 to TH, but the nongenomic response through the PI3K pathway is impaired. Using microCT, we found that 13-week-old TRß147F mice had significantly less trabecular bone mass at three sites. Histomorphometric analyses revealed that mineralizing surface to bone surface and BFR/BS were reduced in the mutant mice. Mechanistically, we found that activation of TRß increased Alp and Osx expression in control but not TRß147F osteoblasts. Since canonical ß-catenin signaling has been implicated in mediating nongenomic TRß-PI3K signaling, we evaluated the effect of TRß1 activation on ß-catenin target gene expression in MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts. We found that ß-catenin target genes were increased, suggesting that nongenomic TRß1-PI3K pathway modulation of ß-catenin signaling may mediate TRß1 effects on osteoblast differentiation. Together, these results suggest that TH acting through TRß1 regulates endochondral ossification in part via nongenomic signaling in mice. Further investigation of this nongenomic mechanism of TRß1 signaling could lead to novel therapeutic targets for treatment and prevention of osteoporosis.

Novel Role for Claudin-11 in the Regulation of Osteoblasts via Modulation of ADAM10-Mediated Notch Signaling.

The claudin (Cldn) family comprises 27 members of 20 to 34 kDa transmembrane tight junction proteins. In addition to Cldns' established canonical role as barriers controlling paracellular flow of molecules, a distinct noncanonical role for them as mediators of cell signaling is now emerging. In our studies evaluating Cldn family expression levels during osteoblast differentiation, Cldn-11 showed the largest increase (60-fold). Immunohistochemistry studies revealed high Cldn-11 expression in trabecular (Tb) bone lining cells. Micro-CT analysis of femurs and vertebrae of Cldn-11 knock-out (KO) mice at 12 weeks of age exhibited a 40% (p < 0.01) reduction in Tb bone volume adjusted for tissue volume compared with control mice, a change caused by significant reductions in Tb number and thickness and increase in Tb separation. Histomorphometry and serum biomarker studies revealed that reduced bone formation, not increased resorption, is the cause for reduced Tb bone volume in the Cldn-11 KO mice. Cldn-11 KO osteoblasts expressed reduced ALP and BSP, whereas Cldn-11 overexpression in MC3T3-E1 cells increased expression of ALP and BSP. Mechanistically, Cldn-11 interacted with tetraspanin (Tspan)3 in osteoblasts, and Tspan3 knockdown reduced osteoblast differentiation. Because members of the Tspan family regulate cell functions via Notch signaling, we evaluated whether Cldn-11/Tspan3 regulates Notch signaling in osteoblasts. Accordingly, Notch targets Hey1 and Hey2 were significantly upregulated in Cldn-11 overexpressing cultures but downregulated in both Cldn-11 KO and Tspan3 knockdown osteoblasts. Because ADAM10 has been shown to interact with Tspan family members to regulate Notch signaling, we evaluated whether Cldn-11 regulates ADAM10 expression. Cldn-11 overexpressing cells express more mature ADAM10, and an ADAM10 inhibitor blocked the Cldn-11 effect on osteoblast differentiation. Based on these data, we propose Cldn-11 as a novel component of an osteoblast cell surface protein complex, comprising Tspan3 and ADAM10, which regulates Notch signaling and cell differentiation. © 2019 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Role of IGF1 and EFN-EPH signaling in skeletal metabolism.

Insulin-like growth factor 1(IGF1) and ephrin ligand (EFN)-receptor (EPH) signaling are both crucial for bone cell function and skeletal development and maintenance. IGF1 signaling is the major mediator of growth hormone-induced bone growth, but a host of different signals and factors regulate IGF1 signaling at the systemic and local levels. Disruption of the Igf1 gene results in reduced peak bone mass in both experimental animal models and humans. Additionally, EFN-EPH signaling is a complex system which, particularly through cell-cell interactions, contributes to the development and differentiation of many bone cell types. Recent evidence has demonstrated several ways in which the IGF1 and EFN-EPH signaling pathways interact with and depend upon each other to regulate bone cell function. While much remains to be elucidated, the interaction between these two signaling pathways opens a vast array of new opportunities for investigation into the mechanisms of and potential therapies for skeletal conditions such as osteoporosis and fracture repair.

Cortical and trabecular bone are equally affected in rats with renal failure and secondary hyperparathyroidism.

BACKGROUND: Changes in mineral metabolism and bone structure develop early in the course of chronic kidney disease and at end-stage are associated with increased risk of fragility fractures. The disruption of phosphorus homeostasis leads to secondary hyperparathyroidism, a common complication of chronic kidney disease. However, the molecular pathways by which high phosphorus influences bone metabolism in the early stages of the disease are not completely understood. We investigated the effects of a high phosphorus diet on bone and mineral metabolism using a 5/6 nephrectomy model of chronic kidney disease. METHODS: Four-week old rats were randomly assigned into groups: 1) Control with standard diet, 2) Nephrectomy with standard rodent diet, and 3) Nephrectomy with high phosphorus diet. Rats underwent in vivo imaging at baseline, day 14, and day 28, followed by ex vivo imaging. RESULTS: Cortical bone density at the femoral mid-diaphysis was reduced in nephrectomy-control and nephrectomy-high phosphorus compared to control rats. In contrast, trabecular bone mass was reduced at both the lumbar vertebrae and the femoral secondary spongiosa in nephrectomy-high phosphorus but not in nephrectomy-control. Reduced trabecular bone volume adjusted for tissue volume was caused by changes in trabecular number and separation at day 35. Histomorphometry revealed increased bone resorption in tibial secondary spongiosa in nephrectomy-control. High phosphorus diet-induced changes in bone microstructure were accompanied by increased serum parathyroid hormone and fibroblast growth factor 23 levels. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates that changes in mineral metabolism and hormonal dysfunction contribute to trabecular and cortical bone changes in this model of early chronic kidney disease.

Thyroid Hormone Signaling in the Development of the Endochondral Skeleton.

Thyroid hormone (TH) is an established regulator of skeletal growth and maintenance both in clinical studies and in laboratory models. The clinical consequences of altered thyroid status on the skeleton during development and in adulthood are well known, and genetic mouse models in which elements of the TH signaling axis have been manipulated illuminate the mechanisms which underlie TH regulation of the skeleton. TH is involved in the regulation of the balance between proliferation and differentiation in several skeletal cell types including chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts. The effects of TH are mediated primarily via the thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) α and ß, ligand-inducible nuclear receptors which act as transcription factors to regulate target gene expression. Both TRα and TRß signaling are important for different stages of skeletal development. The molecular mechanisms of TH action in bone are complex and include interaction with a number of growth factor signaling pathways. This review provides an overview of the regulation and mechanisms of TH action in bone, focusing particularly on the role of TH in endochondral bone formation during postnatal growth.

Thyroid hormone acting via TRß induces expression of browning genes in mouse bone marrow adipose tissue.

PURPOSE: Mutant hypothyroid mouse models have recently shown that thyroid hormone is critical for skeletal development during an important prepubertal growth period. Additionally, thyroid hormone negatively regulates total body fat, consistent with the well-established effects of thyroid hormone on energy and fat metabolism. Since bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells differentiate into both adipocytes and osteoblasts and a relationship between bone marrow adipogenesis and osteogenesis has been predicted, we hypothesized thyroid hormone deficiency during the postnatal growth period increases marrow adiposity in mice. METHODS: Marrow adiposity in TH-deficient (Tshr -/-) mice treated with T3/T4, TH receptor ß-specific agonist GC-1, or vehicle control was evaluated via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and osmium micro-computed tomography. To further examine the mechanism for thyroid hormone regulation of marrow adiposity, we used real-time RT-PCR to measure the effects of thyroid hormone on adipocyte differentiation markers in primary mouse bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells and two mouse cell lines in vitro and in Tshr -/- mice in vivo. RESULTS: Marrow adiposity increased >20% (P < 0.01) in Tshr -/- mice at 3 weeks of age, and treatment with T3/T4 when serum thyroid hormone normally increases (day 5-14) rescued this phenotype. Furthermore, GC-1 rescued this phenotype equally well, suggesting this thyroid hormone effect is in part mediated via TRß signaling. Treatment of bone marrow mesenchymal stromal or ST2 cells with T3 or GC-1 significantly increased expression of several brown/beige fat markers. Moreover, injection of T3/T4 increased browning-specific markers in white fat of Tshr -/- mice. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that thyroid hormone regulation of marrow adiposity is mediated at least in part via activation of TRß signaling.

Skeletal effects of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I therapy.

The growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor (GH/IGF) axis is critically important for the regulation of bone formation, and deficiencies in this system have been shown to contribute to the development of osteoporosis and other diseases of low bone mass. The GH/IGF axis is regulated by a complex set of hormonal and local factors which can act to regulate this system at the level of the ligands, receptors, IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs), or IGFBP proteases. A combination of in vitro studies, transgenic animal models, and clinical human investigations has provided ample evidence of the importance of the endocrine and local actions of both GH and IGF-I, the two major components of the GH/IGF axis, in skeletal growth and maintenance. GH- and IGF-based therapies provide a useful avenue of approach for the prevention and treatment of diseases such as osteoporosis.