The associations between different types of infections and circadian preference and shift work.

Disturbed sleep and circadian disruption are reported to increase the risk of infections. People with an evening circadian preference and night workers typically report insufficient sleep, and the aims of the present study were to investigate possible associations between various types of infections and circadian preference and shift work status. Data were collected from an online cross-sectional survey of 1023 participants recruited from the Norwegian practice-based research network in general practice - PraksisNett. The participants completed questions about circadian preference (morning type, intermediate type, evening type), work schedule (day work, shift work without nights, shift work with night shifts), and whether they had experienced infections during the last three months (common cold, throat infection, ear infection, sinusitis, pneumonia/bronchitis, COVID-19, influenza-like illness, skin infection, gastrointestinal infection, urinary infection, venereal disease, eye infection). Data were analyzed with chi-square tests and logistic regression analyses with adjustment for relevant confounders (gender, age, marital status, country of birth, children living at home, and educational level). Results showed that evening types more often reported venereal disease compared to morning types (OR = 4.01, confidence interval (CI) = 1.08-14.84). None of the other infections were significantly associated with circadian preference. Shift work including nights was associated with higher odds of influenza-like illness (OR = 1.97, CI = 1.10-3.55), but none of the other infections. In conclusion, neither circadian preference nor shift work seemed to be strongly associated with risk of infections, except for venereal disease (more common in evening types) and influenza-like illness (more common in night workers). Longitudinal studies are needed for causal inferences.

Extended access to general practice services during weekends in the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The incidence, symptoms, and trajectories of COVID-19 in the community were unknown in the early phase of the pandemic. Consequently, organizing a primary health care response was challenging. The aim of this study was to investigate whether reorganizing general practice services with extended weekend access for patients was feasible, and to assess the extent to which patients used this service. DESIGN: Observational study with registration after a simple intervention. SETTING: General practice services in the second half of March 2020 when the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic hit Bergen, the second largest city in Norway. SUBJECTS: All general practices in Bergen were asked to be available during weekends for their patients with respiratory tract infections (RTIs), by telephone, video-, or e-consultation. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of practices participating, patients connected to these practices, and consultations for RTIs and suspected COVID-19. RESULTS: During the first weekend, 33 of 71 practices (45%) covering 51% of the population participated. The following weekend this increased to 39 practices (53%) covering 64% of the population. The first weekend 25 practices reported a total of 336 consultations for RTIs, eight of which were for confirmed and 113 were for suspected COVID-19. The corresponding numbers reported from 23 practices the second weekend were 158 RTI consultations, four for confirmed and 41 for suspected COVID-19. CONCLUSIONS: On short notice about half the practices in Bergen were made accessible during weekends for their patients with RTIs. The number of consultations per practice was small, but combined this amounted to a substantial improvement in the emergency services.

Prevalence of fibromyalgia 10 years after infection with Giardia lamblia: a controlled prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether acute infection with Giardia lamblia is associated with fibromyalgia 10 years after infection and whether fibromyalgia is associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and chronic fatigue (CF) in this setting. METHODS: A cohort study was established after an outbreak of G. lamblia in Bergen, Norway, 2004. Laboratory-confirmed cases and a matched control group were followed for 10 years. The main outcome was fibromyalgia 10 years after giardiasis, defined by the 2016 revisions of the fibromyalgia diagnostic criteria using the Fibromyalgia Survey Questionnaire (FSQ). RESULTS: The prevalence of fibromyalgia was 8.6% (49/572) among Giardia exposed compared to 3.1% (21/673) in controls (p<0.001). Unadjusted odds for having fibromyalgia was higher for Giardia exposed compared to controls (odds ratio (OR): 2.91, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.72, 4.91), but adjusted for IBS and CF it was not (OR: 1.05, 95% CI: 0.57, 1.95). Among participants without CF the odds for fibromyalgia was 6.27 times higher for participants with IBS than those without (95% CI: 3.31, 11.91) regardless of exposure. Among participants without IBS the odds for fibromyalgia was 4.80 times higher for those with CF than those without (95% CI: 2.75, 8.37). CONCLUSIONS: We found a higher prevalence of fibromyalgia among Giardia exposed compared to controls 10 years after the acute infection. Fibromyalgia was strongly associated with IBS and CF, and the difference between the exposed and controls can be attributed to the high prevalence of IBS and CF among the Giardia exposed. Notably, this study was not designed to establish causality between Giardia exposure and the outcomes.

Antibiotics for gastroenteritis in general practice and out-of-hour services in Norway 2006-15.

BACKGROUND: When patients with gastroenteritis (GE) seek health care, they are generally managed in primary care. Little is known about the use of antibiotic treatment in these cases. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate time trends and patient characteristics associated with antibiotic treatment for GE in Norwegian primary care in a 10-year period. METHODS: We linked data from two nationwide registries, reimbursement claims data from Norwegian primary care (the KUHR database) and The Norwegian Prescription Database, for the period 2006-15. GE consultations were extracted, and courses of systemic antibiotics dispensed within 1 day were included for further analyses. RESULTS: Antibiotic treatment was linked to 1.8% (n = 23 663) of the 1 279 867 consultations for GE in Norwegian primary care in the period 2006-15. The proportion of GE consultations with antibiotic treatment increased from 1.4% in 2006 to 2.2% in 2012 and then decreased to 1.8% in 2015. Fluoroquinolones (28.9%) and metronidazole (26.8%) were most frequently used. Whereas the number of fluoroquinolones courses decreased after 2012, the number of metronidazole courses continued to increase until year 2015. The antibiotic treatment proportion of GE consultations was lowest in young children and increased with increasing age. CONCLUSION: Antibiotic treatment is infrequently used in GE consultations in Norwegian primary care. Although there was an overall increase in use during the study period, we observed a reduction in overall use after year 2012. Young children were treated with antibiotics in GE consultations less frequent than older patients.

Restless legs syndrome - a study from general practice. / Rastløse bein ­ en studie fra allmennpraksis.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of restless legs syndrome (RLS) among adults in the general population is around 5-10 %. Few studies have been conducted on the prevalence among patients who consult their general practitioner. There are also few studies on associations between RLS and other common complaints such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), chronic fatigue (CF) and chronic muscle and back pain (CMBP). MATERIAL AND METHOD: The study was conducted as a questionnaire survey at medical offices in Southern and Western Norway in the autumn of 2017 and spring of 2018, when patients waiting to see their general practitioner (GP) were invited to participate. A total of 2 634 people took part (62.2 % women, average age 49.6 years). The response rate was 86.8 %. Restless legs syndrome (RLS) was defined on the basis of international criteria. Associations between RLS and IBS, CF and CMBP were analysed by means of chi-squared tests and logistic regression. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION: The proportion of patients with RLS was 14.3 %. Of the patients with RLS, 44.8 % reported that their symptoms were moderately to very distressing, and 85.8 % that they did not use medication for it. The proportion of patients with RLS was significantly higher among patients with IBS (21.8 % versus 13.6 %, p = 0.009), CF (18.2 % versus 13.1 %, p = 0.003) and CMBP (23.2 % versus 12.2 %, p < 0.0005). GPs should be aware that many patients have RLS and that the condition is associated with other common complaints.

Correction: Characteristics of hospitalized patients during a large waterborne outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni in Norway.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248464.].

Characteristics of hospitalized patients during a large waterborne outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni in Norway.

Very few reports describe all hospitalized patients with campylobacteriosis in the setting of a single waterborne outbreak. This study describes the demographics, comorbidities, clinical features, microbiology, treatment and complications of 67 hospitalized children and adults during a large waterborne outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni in Askoy, Norway in 2019, where more than 2000 people in a community became ill. We investigated factors that contributed to hospitalization and treatment choices. Data were collected from electronic patient records during and after the outbreak. Fifty adults and seventeen children were included with a biphasic age distribution peaking in toddlers and middle-aged adults. Most children, 14 out of 17, were below 4 years of age. Diarrhea was the most commonly reported symptom (99%), whereas few patients (9%) reported bloody stools. Comorbidities were frequent in adults (63%) and included cardiovascular disease, pre-existing gastrointestinal disease or chronic renal failure. Comorbidities in children (47%) were dominated by pulmonary and gastrointestinal diseases. Adult patients appeared more severely ill than children with longer duration of stay, higher levels of serum creatinine and CRP and rehydration therapy. Ninety-two percent of adult patients were treated with intravenous fluid as compared with 12% of children. Almost half of the admitted children received antibiotics. Two patients died, including a toddler. Both had significant complicating factors. The demographic and clinical findings presented may be useful for health care planning and patient management in Campylobacter outbreaks both in primary health care and in hospitals.

Anxiety and Depression in Patients with Intracranial Arachnoid Cysts-A Prospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Arachnoid cysts yield cognitive deficits that are normalized after surgical cyst decompression. OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to investigate whether arachnoid cysts also affect symptoms of anxiety and depression, and if surgical cyst decompression leads to reduction of these symptoms. METHODS: Twenty-two adult patients (13 men and 9 women) with symptomatic temporal or frontal cysts were included in this questionnaire (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [HADS])-based prospective study. The mean time between answering the preoperative questionnaire and surgery was 37 days. The patients answered the same HADS questionnaire 3-6 months postoperatively. RESULTS: Preoperatively, both patients with frontal (N = 4) and patients with temporal (N = 18) cyst had higher mean HADS anxiety scores than those found in the general population. For patients with temporal cyst, there was a significant or near-significant difference in anxiety and depression scores and the combined scores between those with right-sided cysts and those with left-sided cysts. Postoperatively, the HADS scores normalized and were no longer different from those of the general population. The difference in scores between patients with right and left temporal cyst also disappeared. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with arachnoid cyst have higher levels of anxiety and depression than do the general population and these scores were normalized after decompressive cyst surgery. We further found a hemispheric asymmetry: patients with a right temporal cyst showed higher anxiety, depression, and combined scores than did patients with a left temporal cyst. Also, this disparity normalized after cyst decompression. Thus, arachnoid cysts seem to affect not only cognition but also the level of affective symptoms.

Quality of life and its association with irritable bowel syndrome and fatigue ten years after giardiasis.

BACKGROUND: Gastroenteritis has been associated with complications such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and chronic fatigue (CF). Little is known about the implications for quality of life (QoL) in this setting. The aims of this study were to evaluate the association between exposure to Giardia infection and QoL ten years after the infection, and how this related to IBS and CF. METHODS: We followed 1252 patients with laboratory-verified Giardia lamblia infection and a matched control group for 10 years after an epidemic in Bergen, Norway, in 2004. The main outcome was QoL after ten years as defined by the Short-form 12 version 2 with a physical component summary (PCS) and a mental component summary (MCS), both with range 0-100 (T-score). Regression analyses were performed using mixed modeling. KEY RESULTS: Mean PCS T-score in the exposed group (51.4; 95% CI: 50.6-52.1) was 2.8 T-score points (95% CI: -3.8 to -1.9, P < 0.001) lower than that in the control group (54.2; 95% CI: 53.7-54.8). The mean MCS T-score was also 2.8 T-score points (95% CI: -3.8 to -1.9, P < 0.001) lower among the exposed (48.9; 95% CI: 48.2-49.6) than the controls (51.7; 95% CI: 51.1-52.4). Further analyses found that the effect of Giardia exposure on QoL was mediated by IBS and CF. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES: Exposure to Giardia infection was associated with a lower QoL ten years later as compared to a control group, an effect that was mediated by IBS and CF.

Consultations for gastroenteritis in general practice and out-of-hours services in Norway 2006-15.

BACKGROUND: Most of the patients with gastroenteritis seeking health care services are managed in primary care; yet, little is known about these consultations. Syndromic-based surveillance of gastrointestinal infections is used in several countries, including Norway. AIM: To investigate the extent of, and explore characteristics associated with, consultations for gastroenteritis in primary care and to compare consultations in daytime general practice and out-of-hours (OOH) services in Norway. DESIGN AND SETTING: Registry-based study using reimbursement claims data from all consultations in general practice and OOH services in Norway over the 10-year period, 2006-15. METHODS: The main outcome variable was whether the consultation took place in general practice or OOH services. Possible associations with patient age and sex, time and use of point-of-care C-reactive protein (CRP) testing and sickness certificate issuing were investigated. RESULTS: Gastroenteritis consultations (n = 1 281 048) represented 0.9% of all consultations in primary care (n = 140 199 637), of which 84.4% were conducted in general practice and 15.6% in OOH services. Young children and young adults dominated among the patients. Point-of-care CRP testing was used in 36.1% of the consultations. Sickness certificates were issued in 43.6% of consultations with patients in working age. Age-specific time variations in consultation frequencies peaking in winter months were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of gastroenteritis consultations was higher in the OOH services when compared with daytime general practice. Young children and young adults dominated among the patients. The seasonal variation in consultation frequency is similar to that shown for gastroenteritis caused by norovirus.

Prevalence of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Chronic Fatigue 10 Years After Giardia Infection.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a complication that can follow gastrointestinal infection, but it is not clear if patients also develop chronic fatigue. We investigated the prevalence and odds ratio of IBS and chronic fatigue 10 years after an outbreak of Giardia lamblia, compared with a control cohort, and changes in prevalence over time. METHODS: We performed a prospective follow-up study of 1252 laboratory-confirmed cases of giardiasis (exposed), which developed in Bergen, Norway in 2004. Statistics Norway provided us with information from 2504 unexposed individuals from Bergen, matched by age and sex (controls). Questionnaires were mailed to participants 3, 6, and 10 years after the outbreak. Results from the 3- and 6-year follow-up analyses have been published previously. We report the 10-year data and changes in prevalence among time points, determined by logistic regression using generalized estimating equations. RESULTS: The prevalence of IBS 10 years after the outbreak was 43% (n = 248) among 576 exposed individuals and 14% (n = 94) among 685 controls (adjusted odds ratio for development of IBS in exposed individuals, 4.74; 95% CI, 3.61-6.23). At this time point, the prevalence of chronic fatigue was 26% (n = 153) among 587 exposed individuals and 11% (n = 73) among 692 controls (adjusted odds ratio, 3.01; 95% CI, 2.22-4.08). The prevalence of IBS among exposed persons did not change significantly from 6 years after infection (40%) to 10 years after infection (43%; adjusted odds ratio for the change 1.03; 95% CI, 0.87-1.22). However, the prevalence of chronic fatigue decreased from 31% at 6 years after infection to 26% at 10 years after infection (adjusted odds ratio for the change 0.74; 95% CI, 0.61-0.90). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of IBS did not change significantly from 6 years after an outbreak of Giardia lamblia infection in Norway to 10 years after. However, the prevalence of chronic fatigue decreased significantly from 6 to 10 years afterward. IBS and chronic fatigue were still associated with giardiasis 10 years after the outbreak.

Perceived food intolerance and irritable bowel syndrome in a population 3 years after a giardiasis-outbreak: a historical cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Studies have shown an increased prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) after acute gastroenteritis. Food as a precipitating and perpetuating factor in IBS has gained recent interest, but food intolerance following gastroenteritis is less investigated. The aims of this study were firstly, to compare perceived food intolerance in a group previously exposed to Giardia lamblia with a control group; secondly, to explore the relation with IBS status; and thirdly, to investigate associations with content of fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAP) in foods reported. METHODS: This is a historical cohort study with mailed questionnaire to 1252 Giardia exposed and a control cohort matched by gender and age. Differences between groups were investigated using bivariate and multivariate analyses. RESULTS: The questionnaire response rate in the exposed group was 65.3 % (817/1252) and in the control group 31.4 % (1128/3598). The adjusted odds ratio (OR) for perceived food intolerance for the exposed group was 2.00 with 95 % confidence interval (CI): 1.65 to 2.42, as compared with the control group. Perceived intolerance for dairy products was the most frequently reported intolerance, with an adjusted OR for the exposed of 1.95 (95 % CI: 1.51 to 2.51). Perceived intolerance for fatty foods, vegetables, fruit, cereals and alcohol was also significantly higher in the exposed group. The groups did not differ in perceived intolerance to spicy foods, coffee or soda. The association between exposure to Giardia infection and perceived food intolerance differed between the IBS group and the no-IBS group, but IBS was not a significant effect modifier for the association. Perceived intolerance for high FODMAP foods (adjusted OR 1.91) and low FODMAP foods (adjusted OR 1.55) was significantly associated with exposure status. CONCLUSION: Exposure to Giardia infection was associated with perceived food intolerance 3 years after giardiasis. IBS status did not alter the association between exposure status and perceived food intolerance. Perceived intolerance to high FODMAP foods and low FODMAP foods were both statistically significantly associated with exposure to Giardia infection.