Father involvement and children's functioning at age 6 years: a multisite study.

Research suggests that fathers' involvement in their children's lives is associated with enhanced child functioning. The current study examined (a) whether presence of a father was associated with better child functioning, (b) whether children's perceptions of fathers' support was associated with better functioning, and (c) whether the above association was moderated by the father's relationship to the child, the child's race, and the child's gender. Participants included 855 six-year-old children and their caregivers. Father presence was associated with better cognitive development and greater perceived competence by the children. For children with a father figure, those who described greater father support had a stronger sense of social competence and fewer depressive symptoms. The associations did not differ by child's gender, race, or relationship to the father figure. These findings support the value of fathers' presence and support to their children's functioning. Priorities for future research include clarifying what motivates fathers to be positively involved in their children's lives and finding strategies to achieve this.

Evaluation of a first aid and home safety program for Hispanic migrant adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Unintentional injuries are the major cause of death among children, adolescents, and young adults. This article presents an evaluation of an injury-prevention program for 11- to 16-year-old, Hispanic migrant youth. DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial with two conditions: first aid and home safety training and tobacco and alcohol prevention. Participants were assessed at baseline, at immediate post-intervention, and at 1-year follow-up. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 660 Hispanic adolescent and parent pairs participated in a program entitled Sembrando Salud (sowing the seeds of health). INTERVENTION: The intervention consisted of two conditions: first aid and home safety training and tobacco and alcohol prevention. Both groups were exposed to an eight-session, multimedia program presented by bilingual, bicultural college students. The sessions consisted of lectures, discussions, and skills development and practice. OUTCOME MEASURES: To examine the efficacy of the first aid and home safety intervention, adolescents were assessed for changes in first aid confidence, knowledge of items in a first aid kit, knowledge of how to respond in an emergency situation, acquisition of a first aid kit, and behavioral skills testing in response to two emergency scenarios. RESULTS: Similar changes in confidence were observed in both groups after the intervention. Participants in the first aid and home safety program were better able to identify items to include in a first aid kit, how to respond in an emergency situation, and reported fewer erroneous victim-caring procedures than the tobacco and alcohol prevention group. CONCLUSIONS: Sembrando Salud was successful at achieving and maintaining change in confidence and knowledge of first aid and emergency response skills over a yearlong period.

Children and youth in foster care: distangling the relationship between problem behaviors and number of placements.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this research was to provide a prospective look at the relationship between change in placement and problem behaviors over a 12-month period among a cohort of foster children. METHOD: The sample contained 415 youth, and was part of a larger cohort of children who entered foster care in San Diego, California and remained in placement for at least 5 months. The Child Behavior Check List was used to assess behavior problems. Every change of placement during the first 18 months after entry into the foster care system was abstracted from case records. RESULTS: The results suggest that volatile placement histories contribute negatively to both internalizing and externalizing behavior of foster children, and that children who experience numerous changes in placement may be at particularly high risk for these deleterious effects. Initial externalizing behaviors proved to be the strongest predictor of placement changes for the entire sample and for a sub-sample of those who initially evidenced problem behaviors on at least one broad-band CBCL scale. Our findings also suggest that children who initially score within normal ranges on the CBCL may be particularly vulnerable to the detrimental effects of placement breakdowns. CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of these findings we argue for an analytical approach that views behavior problems as both a cause and as a consequence of placement disruption. Children who do not evidence behavior problems may in fact constitute a neglected population that responds to multiple disruptions of their primary relationships with increasingly self-defeating behaviors.

Predictors of cigarette and alcohol susceptibility and use among Hispanic migrant adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about interpersonal and broader sociocultural factors related to protection from or use of tobacco and alcohol among immigrant adolescents. This study presents the baseline predictors of tobacco and alcohol use and susceptibility to tobacco and alcohol among Hispanic migrant adolescents. METHODS: The sample consisted of 660 Hispanic adolescents (51% male) between the ages of 11 and 16 years enrolled in the Migrant Education Program through the County Office of Education. Slightly more than 75% of the study sample was first generation Hispanics and 79% preferred to speak Spanish. An interviewer-administered survey assessed the following information: standard demographic characteristics, modeling of cigarette smoking (including parental and peer smoking), attitudes (including self-standards and anticipated outcomes), acculturation, communication with parents, amount of social support, and satisfaction with social support. RESULTS: Significant predictors of susceptibility to tobacco and smoking status included age, gender, attitudes toward cigarettes (e.g., anticipated outcomes, self-standards), satisfaction with social support, and parent-child communication. Factors that were also significant predictors of susceptibility to alcohol and drinking status were age, attitudes toward drinking, satisfaction with social support, and level of parent-child communication. In addition, peer and household use of alcohol predicted adolescent outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these results it is suggested that tobacco and alcohol prevention efforts for first-generation Hispanic adolescents should target not only usual concerns (e.g., availability, peer pressure, modeling, expectancies), but also parent-child communication.

Evaluation of a tobacco and alcohol use prevention program for Hispanic migrant adolescents: promoting the protective factor of parent-child communication.

BACKGROUND: Interventions designed to prevent tobacco and alcohol use targeting high-risk adolescents are limited. In addition, few studies have attempted to improve parent-child communication skills as a way of improving and maintaining healthy youth decision-making. METHODS: A total of 660 Hispanic migrant families participated in a randomized pre-post control group study that was utilized to determine the impact of the intervention on parent-child communication. Both treatment and attention-control groups of youth were exposed to an eight-session culturally sensitive program presented by bilingual/bicultural college students. Parents jointly attended three of the eight sessions and participated in helping their child complete homework assignments supporting the content of each session. The content of the treatment intervention included (1) information about tobacco and alcohol effects, (2) social skills training (i.e., refusal skills), and (3) the specific development of parent-child communication skills to support healthy youth decisions. RESULTS: Significant intervention by household size interactions for both parent and youth perceptions of communication were found indicating that the treatment was effective in increasing communication in families with fewer children. Based on the effect size and the previously established relationship between communication and susceptibility to tobacco and alcohol use, it was determined that the intervention effect could be translated into a future 5 to 10% decrease in susceptibility for these smaller families. CONCLUSIONS: A culturally sensitive family-based intervention for migrant Hispanic youth was found to be effective in increasing perceived parent-child communication in families with fewer children. It is expected that increases in this important protective factor will lead to later observed decreases in tobacco and alcohol use.

Caregiver substance abuse among maltreated children placed in out-of-home care.

Child protective services (CPS) case records of 639 children placed in out-of-home care due to maltreatment were reviewed, and substance abuse by the child's caregiver prior to the child's placement was evaluated systematically. Based on several different sources of information, 79% of the caregivers were found to meet the criteria for caregiver substance abuse (CSA). Children with and without evidence of CSA differed on age, ethnicity, family composition, and type of maltreatment. The importance of operational specificity in defining CSA and implications for policy and service delivery are discussed.

Coping with sexual abuse: development and evaluation of a videotape intervention for nonoffending parents.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of the study were: (1) to develop, apply, and evaluate a videotape intervention that targeted the development of supportive behaviors in mothers of children who were being examined because of suspected molestation; and (2) to examine the relationship between mothers' reported responses to and beliefs about the molestation and their children's perceptions of support. METHOD: Mothers (N = 87) who had children 4 to 12 years of age were recruited and randomly assigned to view either a treatment or control videotape during the time when their child was being examined. Observers who were blinded to this assignment observed and rated parent-child interactions in the waiting room prior to and again after the mothers viewed the videotape. One week after this brief intervention, 64 of the mothers and 30 of the children (8- to 12-years-old) were interviewed. RESULTS: Mothers who viewed the treatment tape were more likely to engage in supportive behaviors with their child immediately after viewing the tape, and were able to identify more supportive behaviors at the 1-week followup. In addition, mothers' reports of how they responded to the molestation (including perceived blame) was related to child perceptions of parental support. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that children who have been sexually molested are sensitive to the initial reactions of their nonoffending parent to the disclosure. In addition, there is some evidence that we can design and deliver cost-effective interventions during the early disclosure period that promote more positive (or supportive) responses by the nonoffending parent.

Implementation and evaluation of a community-sponsored smoking cessation contest.

BACKGROUND: This article provides a description and evaluation of a community-sponsored smoking cessation contest. Adapted from previous efforts, "Quit to Win" relied solely on community resources and was promoted to the two million residents of San Diego County, California. METHODS: A large recruitment campaign included print and electronic media. Eight hundred and two smokers participated in the contest. Contest entry forms served as the pretreatment measure, quit cards measured smoking status, and follow-up telephone interviews collected additional data on three groups: joiners, nonjoiners, and comparison subjects. RESULTS: Thirty-five percent of the participants reported being smoke-free two months after the program. Television was by far the most effective promotional medium, while individuals who received a promotional flyer were somewhat more likely to actually join the contest than those who heard of it through other sources. Self-confidence, outcome expectations, and lighter smoking habit were predictive of contest participation. Of joiners, those with a greater fear of suffering from withdrawal were less likely to quit. DISCUSSION: The approximate cost per quitter was $17.25 based on the direct budget expenses for the contest. However, this does not include the significant cost of the many donated services. Large smoking cessation contests can be cost-effective while providing direct and indirect benefits to anti-tobacco efforts.

Self-regulation in retarded persons: acquisition of standards for performance.

Twenty-four TMR children (mean IQ = 40.1, mean MA = 46.4 months) were divided into three groups equated by stratified assignment on IQ, MA, and CA. One group was then randomly assigned to each treatment condition: (a) Training 1 (live/film), (b) Training 2 (film/live), and (c) control. In the first phase of the study, both training groups watched five clown models set their standard at 6 on a bowling game. Subsequent standards set by the training and control groups indicated that these retarded children did base their standards on the models' standards (i.e., social referent). A training program including both live and filmed demonstrations was developed in order to teach the children a concept (i.e., "between") that would allow them to set their standards based on their own past performance. We found that both training groups acquired, retained, and generalized the concept as evidenced by the standards they set.

Developmental priority of identity conservation: acceleration of identity and equivalence in normal and moderately retarded children.

In an attempt to clarify the chronological relationship between identity and equivalence conservation, normal preschool-aged children (experiment 1) were exposed to brief videotape demonstrations of a model conserving identity and equivalence, identity only, equivalence only, or neither. Subsequent performances indicate that identity was easier to accelerate than equivalence, and training in both identity and equivalence appeared to be most effective in accelerating conservation. Trainable mentally retarded (TMR) children were then exposed to either the identity-equivalence-conserving or control model (experiment 2). This population, which some have argued remains at a preoperational level of functioning, was more likely to conserve identity than equivalence. In addition, conservation in the training group increased following training, though these gains were not maintained over a 3-week retention interval.

Immediate and delayed reward preferences of TMR adolescents.

Adolescent TMR students (mean IQ = 37) were presented with a list of 32 reward options, consisting of primary (food) and secondary (cash equivalent) rewards that were immediately available or delayed one day at a ratio of 1:2. The greatest number of delay choices occurred when the decision was between immediate/secondary and delayed/primary rewards. Subjects subsequently classified as delayers (34.3% of this population) made the fewest delay choices when presented with immediate/primary vs. delayed/secondary/options. Nondelayers made the most delay choices when given an immediate/secondary or delayed/primary choice.

Delay of gratification: decisional self-control and experience with delay intervals.

Actual and verbally reported decisional self-control choices (e.g., 1 penny now or 2 pennies in 1 minute) were obtained from 40 retarded adolescents who participated in a sheltered workshop. Prior to each of their eight choices, one-half of the students experienced the same time interval that was included in the choice for that day (e.g., 1 minute). Analysis of the number of actual and reported delay choices yielded a significant effect for experience, with the treatment group making more delay choices. In addition to suggesting that decisional self-control can be facilitated by prior exposure to delay intervals, the results indicated that verbally reported choices can be used as a reliable and valid indication of actual choices.

Detectability and perceptions of a transsexual: implications for therapy.

Transsexuals are concerned with being accepted in straight society, that is, "passing" successfully. Ninety-one undergraduates were shown a videotaped discussion of interracial dating by five heterosexual biological females and one cross-dressed male transsexual. Experimental subjects, who had been previously informed of the presence of the transsexual, were all able to identify her, significantly more than control subjects who had not been given this set. Ratings were obtained on eight personal attributes of the transsexual and the five biological females prior to the subjects' attempts to identify the transsexual in the group. The results of these ratings indicated that detection of the transsexual was related to perceived femininity and happiness. Based on these findings and subjects' reports of how they correctly identified the transsexual, suggestions were made for a therapy package to assist transsexuals in minimizing the probability of their detection.

Acquisition of concepts by TMR children as a function of type of modeling, rule verbalization, and observer gender.

A four-factor repeated measures design was established in order to determine (a) whether or not TMR children could acquire a novel rule-governed concept via modeling and (b) the effects of type of modeling demonstration, verbal rule provision, and observer gender on concept matching and transfer by TMR children. Twenty-four male and 24 female TMR children (mean IQ=44 and mean MA=5.67 years) were divided into four groups each equated by stratified assignment on IQ and MA. One male and one female group were randomly selected to observe a live female model present (a) massed-demonstration trials while verbalizing the concept, (b) massed trials without the concept being verbalized, (c) distributed-demonstration trials with the conceptual verbalization, and (d) distributed trials without conceptual verbalization. Subjects were then presented with three transfer tasks, each subsequently requiring a greater degree of generalization from the demonstration task. It was found that TMR children could acquire and transfer the complex concept via modeling. Distributed demonstrations yielded better initial response matching, while massed demonstrations led to better transfer. Rule provision facilitated transfer for massed-demonstration groups and facilitated matching for the male distributed-trials groups.